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<div>
<h3>Critical Thinking and Argumentation</h3>
<dl>
<dt><strong>Critical thinking</strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">“Critical thinking is intelligent reasoning with supporting evidence to help make wise decisions.”</div></dd>
<dt><strong>Argumentation</strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">“Argumentation is the art of influencing others, through the medium of reasoned discourse, to believe or act as we wish them to believe or act.</div></dd>
<dl>
<citation><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">Zhang (Introduction - P 1, Book 4)
</div></citation>
<div>
<h3><em>Logos</em>, <em>Ethos</em>, <em>Pathos</em> and Needs</h3>
<dl>
<dt><strong><em>Logos</em></strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block"><em>Logos</em> is related to the English word <em>logic</em>.</div></dd>
<dt><strong><em>Ethos</em></strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block"><em>Ethos</em> means “ethics” in English and refers to the trustworthiness or credibility of a writer.</div></dd>
<dt><strong><em>Pathos</em></strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block"><em>Pathos</em> is the Greek word for “emotion” or “feeling,” and it refers to the ability of language to evoke feelings in us, feelings like love, fear, patriotism, guilt and joy.</div></dd>
<dt><strong>Needs analysis</strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">Needs analysis is an approach to persuasion, which focuses on five basic human needs</div></dd>
<dl>
<citation><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">Zhang (Unit 1 - P 5, Book 4)
</div></citation>
<div>
<h3>Fallacious Appeals to Emotion</h3>
<dl>
<dt><strong>Appeal to compassion [sympathy], pity, or guilt</strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">a rhetorical ploy [a cunning plan or action designed to turn a situation to one’s own advantage] attempting to move us to do something purely by evoking a feeling of compassion towards the recipients [someone who receives something] of the suggested act or belief, or a feeling of guilt about their plight [a sad, serious, or difficult situation].</div></dd>
<dt><strong>Appeal to cuteness</strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">argument by personal charm; a fallacious rhetorical technique to urge us to buy a product or take an action via its association with the cute figure delivering the message (similar appeals to sexiness, vanity [excessive pride in or admiration of one’s own appearance or achievements], wealth, status, power, coolness, etc.).</div></dd>
<dt><strong>Appeal to fear</strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">also known as scare tactics; a tactic of trying to elicit [evoke] a fear in one's readers or listeners in order to influence their behavior or attitudes.</div></dd>
<dt><strong>Appeal to popular sentiments</strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">using emotional and noncontroversial topics to win assent [the expression of approval or agreement] from an audience without having to confront [deal with] substantive [important or serious] issues</div></dd>
<dl>
<citation><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">Zhang (Unit 2 - P 13, Book 4)
</div></citation>
<div>
<h3>Fallacies about People</h3>
<dl>
<dt><strong><em>Ad hominem</em></strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">Meaning “against the man,” also known as attacking the person or poisoning the well: attacking the arguer instead of the argument or issue.</div></dd>
<dt><strong>Appeal to authority</strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">using authority outside their areas of expertise as support for an argument.</div></dd>
<dt><strong>Bandwagon</strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">also known as an appeal to popularity or following the crowd: if everybody’s doing it, that’s reason enough; jump on the bandwagon.</div></dd>
<dt><strong>Good intentions</strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">Praising the source of an argument and then claiming that the argument is therefore strong.</div></dd>
<dt><strong>Tokenism</strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">The practice of doing something only to prevent criticism and give the appearance that people are being treated fairly.</div></dd>
<dt><strong>Two wrongs make a right</strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">A charge of wrongdoing is answered by a rationalization that others have sinned or might have sinned. It amounts [develop into; become] to saying that if the other side does some evil, then it’s all right if we do it too</div></dd>
<dl>
<citation><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">Zhang (Unit 3 - P 20, Book 4)
</div></citation>
<div>
<h3>Fallacies about Arguments (I)</h3>
<dl>
<dt><strong>Complex question</strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">combining at least two questions, with the answer to at least one of them assumed by the questioner to be true.</div></dd>
<dt><strong>Conflation [conflate: combine] of morality with legality</strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">assuming that anything legal must be moral, or conversely, that anything illegal must be immoral.</div></dd>
<dt><strong>False dilemma</strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">also known as the either/or fallacy or the black-or-white fallacy: erroneous reduction of alternatives or possibilities, usually a reduction to just two.</div></dd>
<dt><strong>Loaded question</strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">a question containing a word or words which are intended to have a strong emotional effect on someone and influence the answer he/she gives.</div></dd>
<dt><strong><em>Non sequitur</em></strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">meaning “it does not follow”; also known as irrelevant reason: use of evidence entirely irrelevant to a conclusion.</div></dd>
<dt><strong>Oversimplification</strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">ignoring all but one or two reasons for a claim, with crucial qualifications omitted.</div></dd>
<dt><strong><em>Post hoc</em></strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">meaning “after this, therefore because of this”; also known as the doubtful cause fallacy: labeling something as the cause of something else on insufficient evidence, or contrary to available evidence.</div></dd>
<dt><strong>Red herring</strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">something intended to distract one’s attention from the real problem or matter at hand.</div></dd>
<dt><strong>Slippery slope</strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">predicting without justification that one step in a process will lead unavoidably to a second, generally undesirable step.</div></dd>
<dt><strong>Straw man</strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">ignoring the opponent’s position on an issue and setting up a weaker version of that position by misrepresentation, exaggeration, distortion, or simplification.</div></dd>
<dt><strong>Suppressed evidence</strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">the omission from an argument of known relevant evidence (or the failure to suspect that relevant evidence is being suppressed)</div></dd>
<dl>
<citation><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">Zhang (Unit 5 - P 36, Book 4)
</div></citation>
<div>
<h3>Fallacies about Arguments (II)</h3>
<dl>
<dt><strong>Accident</strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">applying a general principle to a particular case in a manner in which the principle was never intended to apply.</div></dd>
<dt><strong>Appeal to ignorance</strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">the fallacy of concluding ether that because a claim has not been proved it must be false (the negative form), or that because it has not been disproved it must be true (the positive form).</div></dd>
<dt><strong>Appeal to novelty</strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">attempting to persuade us to try or buy something because the item is new and, by implication, different from and better than existing related items.</div></dd>
<dt><strong>Appeal to tradition</strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">also known as “Old ways are best”: appealing to the past as an authority; this fallacy occurs when it is assumed that something is better or correct simply because it is older, traditional.</div></dd>
<dt><strong>Begging the question</strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">making a statement which assumes that the very question being argued has already been proved, assuming the truth of the very point that you need to prove during the debate.</div></dd>
<dt><strong>Chicken or egg dilemma</strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">Y could have caused X as much as X could have caused Y.</div></dd>
<dt><strong>Composition</strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">the fallacy of composition consists in [to have something as the most important aspect or the only aspect] concluding that because each part of some whole thing has a certain property, the entire thing as a whole must also have that property.</div></dd>
<dt><strong>Division</strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">the fallacy of division is committed when we argue that either the parts of something or the individual members of a group must have a specified property because the entire group, considered as a whole, has that property.</div></dd>
<dt><strong>Inconsistency</strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">the use or acceptance of contradictory [disagree with each other and cannot both or all be true] statements to support a conclusion or conclusions.</div></dd>
<dt><strong>Inversion [a change that makes something the opposite of what it was before, or turns it upside down] of cause and effect</strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">assuming that if a lack of X is the cause of Y, then the presence of X will cause the opposite of Y, or if X causes Y, then an absence of X will prevent Y.</div></dd>
<dt><strong>Mistaking correlation for cause</strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">the fallacy is committed when a statistical correlation is assumed, without any further justification, to establish a causal relation.</div></dd>
<dt><strong>Perfectionist</strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">placing excessive [much more than is reasonable or necessary] demands on an idea or a proposal and then rejecting it purely on the grounds that it will not completely solve a problem.</div></dd>
<dt><strong>Provincialism [the attitudes of people who do not easily accept new or different ideas]</strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">identifying strongly with a particular group and perceiving experience largely in terms of in-group versus out-group.</div></dd>
<dt><strong>Self-sealing</strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">a claim that is so constructed that nothing can possibly be brought against it no matter what happens.</div></dd>
<dt><strong>Water is wet</strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">saying something about the product that is true for any brand in that product category (not a real advantage over the competition)</div></dd>
<dl>
<citation><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">Zhang (Unit 6 - P 45, Book 4)
</div></citation>
<div>
<h3>Fallacies about Analogy</h3>
<dl>
<dt><strong>Fault analogy</strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">comparing two things known to be alike in one or more features and suggesting that they will be alike in other features as well</div></dd>
<dl>
<citation><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">Zhang (Unit 8 - P 68, Book 4)
</div></citation>
<div>
<h3>Fallacies in Deduction and Induction</h3>
<dl>
<dt><strong>Argument in a circle</strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">circular reasoning: restating an assertion (in different words) as a reason for accepting it.</div></dd>
<dt><strong>Biased generalization</strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">a conclusion based on a sample that is biased (Sample size is not representative of the target population).</div></dd>
<dt><strong>Equivocation</strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">a ploy that deliberately exploits the ambiguity of a word or phrase in the given context to influence our actions or beliefs by misleading us.</div></dd>
<dt><strong>Hasty generalization</strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">a conclusion based on too little evidence (Sample size is too small).</div></dd>
<dt><strong>Questionable premise</strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">the use of questionable evidence to reach a conclusion.</div></dd>
<dt><strong>Shared characteristic</strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">a fallacy stating that qualities of A are inherently qualities of B, merely by an irrelevant association; for example, it is fallacious to say that an animal that has four legs is a dog (because both this animal and dog share the characteristic of having four legs).</div></dd>
<dt><strong>Trivial objection</strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">singling out poorly chosen examples or minor premises and claiming that the entire argument has been refuted.</div></dd>
<dt><strong>Unjustified value judgment</strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">this fallacy occurs when a crucial value judgment that is in question is simply slipped into a discourse without justification</div></dd>
<dl>
<citation><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">Zhang (Unit 9 - P 76, Book 4)
</div></citation>
<div>
<h3>Statistics and Ambiguities</h3>
<dl>
<dt><strong>Enhancing a statistic</strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">making a statistic seem bigger or smaller, as the argument requires.</div></dd>
<dt><strong>Faulty comparison</strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">comparing apples and oranges: juxtaposing [place or deal with close together for contrasting effect] otherwise valid statistics in a way that seems to yield significant results, but actually does not, because the statistics are not of comparable types or because a more important comparison has been overlooked.</div></dd>
<dt><strong>Homemade statistics</strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">relating to things that have not been measured or are impossible to measure.</div></dd>
<dt><strong>Unfinished claim</strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">claiming the product is better, or has more of something, but does not finish the comparison.</div></dd>
<dt><strong>Weasel claim</strong></dt>
<dd><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">weasels are words or claims that appear substantial upon first look but disintegrate into hollow meaninglessness on analysis</div></dd>
<dl>
<citation><div class="hideAndViewWithSwitch" style="display: block">Zhang (Unit 11 - P 97, Book4)
</div></citation>
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