BytecodeCompiler.java

package org.perlonjava.backend.bytecode;

import org.perlonjava.frontend.analysis.Visitor;
import org.perlonjava.backend.jvm.EmitterMethodCreator;
import org.perlonjava.backend.jvm.EmitterContext;
import org.perlonjava.frontend.astnode.*;
import org.perlonjava.runtime.perlmodule.Strict;
import org.perlonjava.runtime.runtimetypes.*;
import org.perlonjava.frontend.semantic.ScopedSymbolTable;

import java.util.*;

/**
 * BytecodeCompiler traverses the AST and generates interpreter bytecode.
 *
 * This is analogous to EmitterVisitor but generates custom bytecode
 * for the interpreter instead of JVM bytecode via ASM.
 *
 * Key responsibilities:
 * - Visit AST nodes and emit interpreter opcodes
 * - Allocate registers for variables and temporaries
 * - Build constant pool and string pool
 * - Generate 3-address code (rd = rs1 op rs2)
 */
public class BytecodeCompiler implements Visitor {
    // Pre-allocate with reasonable initial capacity to reduce resizing
    // Typical small eval/subroutine needs 20-50 bytecodes, 5-10 constants, 3-8 strings
    final List<Integer> bytecode = new ArrayList<>(64);
    private final List<Object> constants = new ArrayList<>(16);
    private final List<String> stringPool = new ArrayList<>(16);
    private final Map<String, Integer> stringPoolIndex = new HashMap<>(16);  // O(1) lookup
    private final Map<Object, Integer> constantPoolIndex = new HashMap<>(16);  // O(1) lookup

    // Simple variable-to-register mapping for the interpreter
    // Each scope is a Map<String, Integer> mapping variable names to register indices
    final Stack<Map<String, Integer>> variableScopes = new Stack<>();

    // Symbol table for package/class tracking
    // Tracks current package, class flag, and package versions like the compiler does
    final ScopedSymbolTable symbolTable = new ScopedSymbolTable();

    // Stack to save/restore register state when entering/exiting scopes
    private final Stack<Integer> savedNextRegister = new Stack<>();
    private final Stack<Integer> savedBaseRegister = new Stack<>();

    // Loop label stack for last/next/redo control flow
    // Each entry tracks loop boundaries and optional label
    private final Stack<LoopInfo> loopStack = new Stack<>();

    // Helper class to track loop boundaries
    private static class LoopInfo {
        final String label;           // Loop label (null if unlabeled)
        final int startPc;           // PC for redo (start of loop body)
        int continuePc;              // PC for next (continue block or increment)
        final List<Integer> breakPcs; // PCs to patch for last (break)
        final List<Integer> nextPcs;  // PCs to patch for next
        final List<Integer> redoPcs;  // PCs to patch for redo
        final boolean isTrueLoop;    // True for for/while/foreach; false for do-while/bare blocks

        LoopInfo(String label, int startPc, boolean isTrueLoop) {
            this.label = label;
            this.startPc = startPc;
            this.isTrueLoop = isTrueLoop;
            this.continuePc = -1;  // Will be set later
            this.breakPcs = new ArrayList<>();
            this.nextPcs = new ArrayList<>();
            this.redoPcs = new ArrayList<>();
        }
    }

    // Token index tracking for error reporting
    private final TreeMap<Integer, Integer> pcToTokenIndex = new TreeMap<>();
    int currentTokenIndex = -1;  // Track current token for error reporting

    // Error reporting
    final ErrorMessageUtil errorUtil;

    // EmitterContext for strict checks and other compile-time options
    private EmitterContext emitterContext;

    // Register allocation
    private int nextRegister = 3;  // 0=this, 1=@_, 2=wantarray
    private int baseRegisterForStatement = 3;  // Reset point after each statement
    private int maxRegisterEverUsed = 2;  // Track highest register ever allocated

    // Track last result register for expression chaining
    int lastResultReg = -1;

    // Track current calling context for subroutine calls
    int currentCallContext = RuntimeContextType.LIST; // Default to LIST

    // Closure support
    private RuntimeBase[] capturedVars;           // Captured variable values
    private String[] capturedVarNames;            // Parallel array of names
    Map<String, Integer> capturedVarIndices;  // Name → register index

    // Track ALL variables ever declared (for variableRegistry)
    // This is needed because inner scopes get popped before variableRegistry is built
    final Map<String, Integer> allDeclaredVariables = new HashMap<>();

    // BEGIN support for named subroutine closures
    private int currentSubroutineBeginId = 0;     // BEGIN ID for current named subroutine (0 = not in named sub)
    private Set<String> currentSubroutineClosureVars = new HashSet<>();  // Variables captured from outer scope

    // Source information
    final String sourceName;
    final int sourceLine;

    public BytecodeCompiler(String sourceName, int sourceLine, ErrorMessageUtil errorUtil) {
        this.sourceName = sourceName;
        this.sourceLine = sourceLine;
        this.errorUtil = errorUtil;

        // Initialize with global scope containing the 3 reserved registers
        Map<String, Integer> globalScope = new HashMap<>();
        globalScope.put("this", 0);
        globalScope.put("@_", 1);
        globalScope.put("wantarray", 2);
        variableScopes.push(globalScope);
    }

    // Legacy constructor for backward compatibility
    public BytecodeCompiler(String sourceName, int sourceLine) {
        this(sourceName, sourceLine, null);
    }

    /**
     * Constructor for eval STRING with parent scope variable registry.
     * Initializes variableScopes with variables from parent scope.
     *
     * @param sourceName Source name for error messages
     * @param sourceLine Source line for error messages
     * @param errorUtil Error message utility
     * @param parentRegistry Variable registry from parent scope (for eval STRING)
     */
    public BytecodeCompiler(String sourceName, int sourceLine, ErrorMessageUtil errorUtil,
                           Map<String, Integer> parentRegistry) {
        this.sourceName = sourceName;
        this.sourceLine = sourceLine;
        this.errorUtil = errorUtil;

        // Initialize with global scope containing the 3 reserved registers
        // plus any variables from parent scope (for eval STRING)
        Map<String, Integer> globalScope = new HashMap<>();
        globalScope.put("this", 0);
        globalScope.put("@_", 1);
        globalScope.put("wantarray", 2);

        if (parentRegistry != null) {
            // Add parent scope variables (for eval STRING variable capture)
            globalScope.putAll(parentRegistry);

            // Preserve parent scope variables in the compiled code's variableRegistry so that
            // nested eval STRING can capture lexicals from this eval scope.
            allDeclaredVariables.putAll(parentRegistry);

            // Mark parent scope variables as captured so assignments use SET_SCALAR
            capturedVarIndices = new HashMap<>();
            for (Map.Entry<String, Integer> entry : parentRegistry.entrySet()) {
                String varName = entry.getKey();
                int regIndex = entry.getValue();
                // Skip reserved registers
                if (regIndex >= 3) {
                    capturedVarIndices.put(varName, regIndex);
                }
            }

            // Adjust nextRegister to account for captured variables
            // Find the maximum register index used by parent scope
            int maxRegister = 2;  // Start with reserved registers (0-2)
            for (Integer regIndex : parentRegistry.values()) {
                if (regIndex > maxRegister) {
                    maxRegister = regIndex;
                }
            }
            // Next available register is one past the maximum used
            this.nextRegister = maxRegister + 1;
            this.maxRegisterEverUsed = maxRegister;
            this.baseRegisterForStatement = this.nextRegister;
        }

        variableScopes.push(globalScope);
    }

    /**
     * Helper: Check if a variable exists in any scope.
     */
    boolean hasVariable(String name) {
        for (int i = variableScopes.size() - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
            if (variableScopes.get(i).containsKey(name)) {
                return true;
            }
        }
        return false;
    }

    /**
     * Helper: Get the register index for a variable.
     * Returns -1 if not found.
     */
    int getVariableRegister(String name) {
        for (int i = variableScopes.size() - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
            Integer reg = variableScopes.get(i).get(name);
            if (reg != null) {
                return reg;
            }
        }
        return -1;
    }

    /**
     * Helper: Add a variable to the current scope and return its register index.
     * Allocates a new register.
     */
    int addVariable(String name, String declType) {
        int reg = allocateRegister();
        variableScopes.peek().put(name, reg);
        allDeclaredVariables.put(name, reg);  // Track for variableRegistry
        return reg;
    }

    /**
     * Helper: Enter a new lexical scope.
     * Saves current register allocation state so inner scopes don't
     * interfere with outer scope register usage.
     */
    private void enterScope() {
        variableScopes.push(new HashMap<>());
        // Save current register state
        savedNextRegister.push(nextRegister);
        savedBaseRegister.push(baseRegisterForStatement);
        // Update base to protect all registers allocated before this scope
        baseRegisterForStatement = nextRegister;
        // Save current pragma state so use strict/no strict inside blocks is properly scoped
        if (emitterContext != null && emitterContext.symbolTable != null) {
            ScopedSymbolTable st = emitterContext.symbolTable;
            st.strictOptionsStack.push(st.strictOptionsStack.peek());
            st.featureFlagsStack.push(st.featureFlagsStack.peek());
            st.warningFlagsStack.push((java.util.BitSet) st.warningFlagsStack.peek().clone());
        }
    }

    /**
     * Helper: Exit the current lexical scope.
     * Restores register allocation state to what it was before entering the scope.
     */
    private void exitScope() {
        if (variableScopes.size() > 1) {
            variableScopes.pop();
            // Restore register state
            if (!savedNextRegister.isEmpty()) {
                nextRegister = savedNextRegister.pop();
            }
            if (!savedBaseRegister.isEmpty()) {
                baseRegisterForStatement = savedBaseRegister.pop();
            }
            // Restore pragma state
            if (emitterContext != null && emitterContext.symbolTable != null) {
                ScopedSymbolTable st = emitterContext.symbolTable;
                st.strictOptionsStack.pop();
                st.featureFlagsStack.pop();
                st.warningFlagsStack.pop();
            }
        }
    }

    /**
     * Helper: Get current package name for global variable resolution.
     * Uses symbolTable for proper package/class tracking.
     */
    String getCurrentPackage() {
        return symbolTable.getCurrentPackage();
    }

    /**
     * Set the compile-time package for name normalization.
     * Called by eval STRING handlers to sync the package from the call site,
     * so bare names like *named compile to FOO3::named instead of main::named.
     */
    public void setCompilePackage(String packageName) {
        symbolTable.setCurrentPackage(packageName, false);
    }

    /**
     * Helper: Get all variable names in all scopes (for closure detection).
     */
    private String[] getVariableNames() {
        Set<String> allVars = new HashSet<>();
        for (Map<String, Integer> scope : variableScopes) {
            allVars.addAll(scope.keySet());
        }
        return allVars.toArray(new String[0]);
    }

    /**
     * Helper: Check if a variable is a built-in special length-one variable.
     * Single-character non-letter variables like $_, $0, $!, $; are always allowed under strict.
     * Mirrors logic from EmitVariable.java.
     */
    private static boolean isBuiltinSpecialLengthOneVar(String sigil, String name) {
        if (!"$".equals(sigil) || name == null || name.length() != 1) {
            return false;
        }
        char c = name.charAt(0);
        // In Perl, many single-character non-identifier variables (punctuation/digits)
        // are built-in special vars and are exempt from strict 'vars'.
        return !Character.isLetter(c);
    }

    /**
     * Helper: Check if a variable is a built-in special scalar variable.
     * Variables like ${^GLOBAL_PHASE}, $ARGV, $ENV are always allowed under strict.
     * Mirrors logic from EmitVariable.java.
     */
    private static boolean isBuiltinSpecialScalarVar(String sigil, String name) {
        if (!"$".equals(sigil) || name == null || name.isEmpty()) {
            return false;
        }
        // ${^FOO} variables are encoded as a leading ASCII control character.
        // (e.g. ${^GLOBAL_PHASE} -> "\aLOBAL_PHASE"). These are built-in and strict-safe.
        if (name.charAt(0) < 32) {
            return true;
        }
        return name.equals("ARGV")
                || name.equals("ARGVOUT")
                || name.equals("ENV")
                || name.equals("INC")
                || name.equals("SIG")
                || name.equals("STDIN")
                || name.equals("STDOUT")
                || name.equals("STDERR");
    }

    /**
     * Helper: Check if a variable is a built-in special container variable.
     * Variables like %ENV, @ARGV, @INC are always allowed under strict.
     * Mirrors logic from EmitVariable.java.
     */
    private static boolean isBuiltinSpecialContainerVar(String sigil, String name) {
        if (name == null) {
            return false;
        }
        if ("%".equals(sigil)) {
            return name.equals("SIG")
                    || name.equals("ENV")
                    || name.equals("INC")
                    || name.equals("+")
                    || name.equals("-");
        }
        if ("@".equals(sigil)) {
            return name.equals("ARGV")
                    || name.equals("INC")
                    || name.equals("_")
                    || name.equals("F");
        }
        return false;
    }

    /**
     * Helper: Check if a non-ASCII length-1 scalar is allowed under 'no utf8'.
     * Under 'no utf8', Latin-1 characters (0x80-0xFF) in single-char variable names
     * are treated as special and exempt from strict vars checking.
     * Mirrors logic from EmitVariable.java lines 82-88.
     *
     * @param sigil The variable sigil
     * @param name The bare variable name (without sigil)
     * @return true if this is a non-ASCII length-1 scalar allowed under 'no utf8'
     */
    private boolean isNonAsciiLengthOneScalarAllowedUnderNoUtf8(String sigil, String name) {
        if (!"$".equals(sigil) || name == null || name.length() != 1) {
            return false;
        }
        char c = name.charAt(0);
        // Allow if character > 127 (Latin-1) and 'use utf8' is NOT enabled
        return c > 127 && emitterContext != null && emitterContext.symbolTable != null
                && !emitterContext.symbolTable.isStrictOptionEnabled(Strict.HINT_UTF8);
    }

    /**
     * Helper: Check if strict vars should block access to this global variable.
     * Returns true if the variable should be BLOCKED (not allowed).
     * Mirrors the createIfNotExists logic from EmitVariable.java lines 362-371.
     *
     * @param varName The variable name with sigil (e.g., "$A", "@array")
     * @return true if access should be blocked under strict vars
     */
    /** Returns true if strict refs is currently enabled in the symbol table. */
    boolean isStrictRefsEnabled() {
        return emitterContext != null && emitterContext.symbolTable != null
                && emitterContext.symbolTable.isStrictOptionEnabled(Strict.HINT_STRICT_REFS);
    }

    boolean shouldBlockGlobalUnderStrictVars(String varName) {
        // Only check if strict vars is enabled
        if (emitterContext == null || emitterContext.symbolTable == null) {
            return false;  // No context, allow access
        }

        boolean strictEnabled = emitterContext.symbolTable.isStrictOptionEnabled(Strict.HINT_STRICT_VARS);
        if (!strictEnabled) {
            return false;  // Strict vars not enabled, allow access
        }

        // Extract sigil and bare name
        String sigil = varName.substring(0, 1);
        String bareVarName = varName.substring(1);

        // Allow qualified names (contain ::)
        if (bareVarName.contains("::")) {
            return false;
        }

        // Allow regex capture variables ($1, $2, etc.)
        if (ScalarUtils.isInteger(bareVarName)) {
            return false;
        }

        // Allow special sort variables $a and $b
        if (sigil.equals("$") && (bareVarName.equals("a") || bareVarName.equals("b"))) {
            return false;
        }

        // Allow built-in special variables
        if (isBuiltinSpecialLengthOneVar(sigil, bareVarName)) {
            return false;
        }
        if (isBuiltinSpecialScalarVar(sigil, bareVarName)) {
            return false;
        }
        if (isBuiltinSpecialContainerVar(sigil, bareVarName)) {
            return false;
        }

        // Allow non-ASCII length-1 scalars under 'no utf8'
        // e.g., $ª, $µ, $º under 'no utf8' are treated as special variables
        if (isNonAsciiLengthOneScalarAllowedUnderNoUtf8(sigil, bareVarName)) {
            return false;
        }

        // BLOCK: Unqualified variable under strict vars
        return true;
    }

    /**
     * Throw a compiler exception with proper error formatting.
     * Uses PerlCompilerException which formats with line numbers and code context.
     *
     * @param message The error message
     * @param tokenIndex The token index where the error occurred
     */
    void throwCompilerException(String message, int tokenIndex) {
        if (errorUtil != null && tokenIndex >= 0) {
            throw new PerlCompilerException(tokenIndex, message, errorUtil);
        } else {
            // Fallback to simple error (no context available)
            throw new RuntimeException(message);
        }
    }

    /**
     * Throw a compiler exception using the current token index.
     *
     * @param message The error message
     */
    void throwCompilerException(String message) {
        throwCompilerException(message, currentTokenIndex);
    }

    /**
     * Compile an AST node to InterpretedCode.
     *
     * @param node The AST node to compile
     * @return InterpretedCode ready for execution
     */
    public InterpretedCode compile(Node node) {
        return compile(node, null);
    }

    /**
     * Compile an AST node to InterpretedCode with optional closure support.
     *
     * @param node The AST node to compile
     * @param ctx  EmitterContext for closure detection (may be null)
     * @return InterpretedCode ready for execution
     */
    public InterpretedCode compile(Node node, EmitterContext ctx) {
        // Store context for strict checks and other compile-time options
        this.emitterContext = ctx;

        // Detect closure variables if context is provided
        if (ctx != null) {
            detectClosureVariables(node, ctx);
            // Use the calling context from EmitterContext for top-level expressions
            // This is crucial for eval STRING to propagate context correctly
            currentCallContext = ctx.contextType;
            // Inherit package from the JVM compiler context so unqualified sub calls
            // resolve in the correct package (not main)
            if (ctx.symbolTable != null) {
                symbolTable.setCurrentPackage(ctx.symbolTable.getCurrentPackage(),
                    ctx.symbolTable.currentPackageIsClass());
            }
        }

        // If we have captured variables, allocate registers for them
        // BUT: If we were constructed with a parentRegistry (for eval STRING),
        // nextRegister is already correctly set by the constructor.
        // Only reset it if we have runtime capturedVars but no parentRegistry.
        if (capturedVars != null && capturedVars.length > 0 && capturedVarIndices == null) {
            // Registers 0-2 are reserved (this, @_, wantarray)
            // Registers 3+ are captured variables
            nextRegister = 3 + capturedVars.length;
        }

        // Visit the node to generate bytecode
        node.accept(this);

        // Emit RETURN with last result register
        // If no result was produced, return undef instead of register 0 ("this")
        int returnReg;
        if (lastResultReg >= 0) {
            returnReg = lastResultReg;
        } else {
            // No result - allocate register for undef
            returnReg = allocateRegister();
            emit(Opcodes.LOAD_UNDEF);
            emitReg(returnReg);
        }

        emit(Opcodes.RETURN);
        emitReg(returnReg);

        // Build variable registry for eval STRING support
        // Use allDeclaredVariables which tracks ALL variables ever declared,
        // not variableScopes which loses variables when scopes are popped
        Map<String, Integer> variableRegistry = new HashMap<>();
        variableRegistry.putAll(allDeclaredVariables);

        // Also include variables from current scopes (in case of nested contexts)
        for (Map<String, Integer> scope : variableScopes) {
            variableRegistry.putAll(scope);
        }

        // Extract strict/feature/warning flags for eval STRING inheritance
        int strictOptions = 0;
        int featureFlags = 0;
        BitSet warningFlags = new BitSet();
        if (emitterContext != null && emitterContext.symbolTable != null) {
            strictOptions = emitterContext.symbolTable.strictOptionsStack.peek();
            featureFlags = emitterContext.symbolTable.featureFlagsStack.peek();
            warningFlags = (BitSet) emitterContext.symbolTable.warningFlagsStack.peek().clone();
        }

        // Build InterpretedCode
        return new InterpretedCode(
            toShortArray(),
            constants.toArray(),
            stringPool.toArray(new String[0]),
            maxRegisterEverUsed + 1,  // maxRegisters = highest register used + 1
            capturedVars,  // NOW POPULATED!
            sourceName,
            sourceLine,
            pcToTokenIndex,  // Pass token index map for error reporting
            variableRegistry,  // Variable registry for eval STRING
            errorUtil,  // Pass error util for line number lookup
            strictOptions,  // Strict flags for eval STRING inheritance
            featureFlags,  // Feature flags for eval STRING inheritance
            warningFlags,  // Warning flags for eval STRING inheritance
            symbolTable.getCurrentPackage()  // Compile-time package for eval STRING name resolution
        );
    }

    // =========================================================================
    // CLOSURE DETECTION
    // =========================================================================

    /**
     * Detect closure variables: variables referenced but not declared locally.
     * Populates capturedVars, capturedVarNames, and capturedVarIndices.
     *
     * @param ast AST to scan for variable references
     * @param ctx EmitterContext containing symbol table and eval context
     */
    private void detectClosureVariables(Node ast, EmitterContext ctx) {
        // If capturedVarIndices was already set by the constructor (for eval STRING
        // with parentRegistry), don't overwrite it. The constructor has already set up
        // the correct captured variable mappings from the parent scope.
        if (capturedVarIndices != null) {
            return;  // Already set up by constructor with parentRegistry
        }

        // Step 1: Collect all variable references in AST
        Set<String> referencedVars = collectReferencedVariables(ast);

        // Step 2: Get local variable declarations from symbol table
        Set<String> localVars = getLocalVariableNames(ctx);

        // Step 3: Closure vars = referenced - local
        Set<String> closureVarNames = new HashSet<>(referencedVars);
        closureVarNames.removeAll(localVars);

        // Remove special variables that don't need capture (they're globals)
        closureVarNames.removeIf(name ->
            name.equals("$_") || name.equals("$@") || name.equals("$!")
        );

        if (closureVarNames.isEmpty()) {
            return;  // No closure vars
        }

        // Step 4: Build arrays
        capturedVarNames = closureVarNames.toArray(new String[0]);
        capturedVarIndices = new HashMap<>();
        List<RuntimeBase> values = new ArrayList<>();

        for (int i = 0; i < capturedVarNames.length; i++) {
            String varName = capturedVarNames[i];
            capturedVarIndices.put(varName, 3 + i);  // Registers 3+

            // Get variable value from eval runtime context
            RuntimeBase value = getVariableValueFromContext(varName, ctx);
            values.add(value);
        }

        capturedVars = values.toArray(new RuntimeBase[0]);
    }

    /**
     * Collect all variable references in AST.
     *
     * @param ast AST node to scan
     * @return Set of variable names (with sigils)
     */
    private Set<String> collectReferencedVariables(Node ast) {
        Set<String> refs = new HashSet<>();
        ast.accept(new VariableCollectorVisitor(refs));
        return refs;
    }

    /**
     * Get local variable names from current scope (not parent scopes).
     *
     * @param ctx EmitterContext containing symbol table
     * @return Set of local variable names
     */
    private Set<String> getLocalVariableNames(EmitterContext ctx) {
        Set<String> locals = new HashSet<>();
        // Collect variables from all scopes
        String[] varNames = getVariableNames();
        for (String name : varNames) {
            // Skip the 3 reserved registers (this, @_, wantarray)
            if (!name.equals("this") && !name.equals("@_") && !name.equals("wantarray")) {
                locals.add(name);
            }
        }
        return locals;
    }

    /**
     * Get variable value from eval runtime context for closure capture.
     *
     * @param varName Variable name (with sigil)
     * @param ctx     EmitterContext containing eval tag
     * @return RuntimeBase value to capture
     */
    private RuntimeBase getVariableValueFromContext(String varName, EmitterContext ctx) {
        // For eval STRING, runtime values are available via evalRuntimeContext ThreadLocal
        RuntimeCode.EvalRuntimeContext evalCtx = RuntimeCode.getEvalRuntimeContext();
        if (evalCtx != null && evalCtx.runtimeValues != null) {
            // Find variable in captured environment
            String[] capturedEnv = evalCtx.capturedEnv;
            Object[] runtimeValues = evalCtx.runtimeValues;

            for (int i = 0; i < capturedEnv.length; i++) {
                if (capturedEnv[i].equals(varName)) {
                    Object value = runtimeValues[i];
                    if (value instanceof RuntimeBase) {
                        return (RuntimeBase) value;
                    }
                }
            }
        }

        // If we can't find a runtime value, return a placeholder
        // This is OK - closures are typically created at runtime via eval
        return new RuntimeScalar();
    }

    // =========================================================================
    // VISITOR METHODS
    // =========================================================================

    /**
     * Compiles a block node, creating a new lexical scope.
     *
     * <p>Special case: the parser wraps implicit-{@code $_} foreach loops as
     * {@code BlockNode([local $_, For1Node(needsArrayOfAlias=true)])}.
     * In that pattern the {@code local $_} child is skipped here because
     * {@link #visit(For1Node)} emits {@code LOCAL_SCALAR_SAVE_LEVEL} itself,
     * which atomically saves the pre-push dynamic level and calls {@code makeLocal}.
     * This allows {@code POP_LOCAL_LEVEL} after the loop to restore {@code $_}
     * correctly regardless of nesting depth.
     */
    @Override
    public void visit(BlockNode node) {
        // Blocks create a new lexical scope
        // But if the block needs to return a value (not VOID context),
        // allocate a result register BEFORE entering the scope so it's valid after
        int outerResultReg = -1;
        if (currentCallContext != RuntimeContextType.VOID) {
            outerResultReg = allocateRegister();
        }

        // Detect the BlockNode([local $_, For1Node(needsArrayOfAlias)]) pattern produced
        // by the parser for implicit-$_ foreach loops. For1Node emits LOCAL_SCALAR_SAVE_LEVEL
        // itself, so the 'local $_' child must be skipped here to avoid double-emission.
        // Using a local variable (not a field) makes this safe against nesting and exceptions.
        boolean skipFirstChild = node.elements.size() == 2
                && node.elements.get(1) instanceof For1Node for1
                && for1.needsArrayOfAlias
                && node.elements.get(0) instanceof OperatorNode localOp
                && localOp.operator.equals("local");

        // If the first statement is a scoped package (package Foo { }),
        // save the DynamicVariableManager level before the block body so PUSH_PACKAGE is restored.
        int scopedPackageLevelReg = -1;
        if (!node.elements.isEmpty()
                && node.elements.get(0) instanceof OperatorNode firstOp
                && (firstOp.operator.equals("package") || firstOp.operator.equals("class"))
                && Boolean.TRUE.equals(firstOp.getAnnotation("isScoped"))) {
            scopedPackageLevelReg = allocateRegister();
            emit(Opcodes.GET_LOCAL_LEVEL);
            emitReg(scopedPackageLevelReg);
        }

        enterScope();

        // Visit each statement in the block
        int numStatements = node.elements.size();
        for (int i = 0; i < numStatements; i++) {
            // Skip the 'local $_' child when For1Node handles it via LOCAL_SCALAR_SAVE_LEVEL
            if (i == 0 && skipFirstChild) continue;
            Node stmt = node.elements.get(i);

            // Track line number for this statement (like codegen's setDebugInfoLineNumber)
            if (stmt != null) {
                int tokenIndex = stmt.getIndex();
                int pc = bytecode.size();
                pcToTokenIndex.put(pc, tokenIndex);
            }

            // Standalone statements (not assignments) use VOID context
            int savedContext = currentCallContext;

            // If this is not an assignment or other value-using construct, use VOID context
            // EXCEPT for the last statement in a block, which should use the block's context
            boolean isLastStatement = (i == numStatements - 1);
            if (!isLastStatement && !(stmt instanceof BinaryOperatorNode && ((BinaryOperatorNode) stmt).operator.equals("="))) {
                currentCallContext = RuntimeContextType.VOID;
            }

            stmt.accept(this);

            currentCallContext = savedContext;

            // Recycle temporary registers after each statement
            // enterScope() protects registers allocated before entering a scope
            recycleTemporaryRegisters();
        }

        // Save the last statement's result to the outer register BEFORE exiting scope
        if (outerResultReg >= 0 && lastResultReg >= 0) {
            emit(Opcodes.MOVE);
            emitReg(outerResultReg);
            emitReg(lastResultReg);
        }

        // Exit scope restores register state
        exitScope();

        // Restore DynamicVariableManager level after scoped package block
        // (undoes PUSH_PACKAGE emitted by the package operator inside the block)
        if (scopedPackageLevelReg >= 0) {
            emit(Opcodes.POP_LOCAL_LEVEL);
            emitReg(scopedPackageLevelReg);
        }

        // Set lastResultReg to the outer register (or -1 if VOID context)
        lastResultReg = outerResultReg;
    }

    @Override
    public void visit(NumberNode node) {
        // Handle number literals with proper Perl semantics
        int rd = allocateRegister();

        // Remove underscores which Perl allows as digit separators (e.g., 10_000_000)
        String value = node.value.replace("_", "");

        try {
            // Use ScalarUtils.isInteger() for consistent number parsing with compiler
            boolean isInteger = ScalarUtils.isInteger(value);

            // For 32-bit Perl emulation, check if this is a large integer
            // that needs to be stored as a string to preserve precision
            boolean isLargeInteger = !isInteger && value.matches("^-?\\d+$");

            if (isInteger) {
                // Regular integer - use LOAD_INT to create mutable scalar
                // Note: We don't use RuntimeScalarCache here because MOVE just copies references,
                // and we need mutable scalars for variables (++, --, etc.)
                int intValue = Integer.parseInt(value);
                emit(Opcodes.LOAD_INT);
                emitReg(rd);
                emitInt(intValue);
            } else if (isLargeInteger) {
                // Large integer - store as string to preserve precision (32-bit Perl emulation)
                int strIdx = addToStringPool(value);
                emit(Opcodes.LOAD_STRING);
                emitReg(rd);
                emit(strIdx);
            } else {
                // Floating-point number - create RuntimeScalar with double value
                RuntimeScalar doubleScalar = new RuntimeScalar(Double.parseDouble(value));
                int constIdx = addToConstantPool(doubleScalar);
                emit(Opcodes.LOAD_CONST);
                emitReg(rd);
                emit(constIdx);
            }

        } catch (NumberFormatException e) {
            throw new RuntimeException("Invalid number: " + node.value, e);
        }

        lastResultReg = rd;
    }

    void handleArrayKeyValueSlice(BinaryOperatorNode node, OperatorNode leftOp) {
        int arrayReg;

        // Index/value slice: %array[indices] returns alternating index/value pairs.
        // Postfix ->%[...] is parsed into this form by the parser.

        if (leftOp.operand instanceof IdentifierNode) {
            String varName = "@" + ((IdentifierNode) leftOp.operand).name;
            if (hasVariable(varName)) {
                arrayReg = getVariableRegister(varName);
            } else {
                arrayReg = allocateRegister();
                String globalArrayName = NameNormalizer.normalizeVariableName(((IdentifierNode) leftOp.operand).name, getCurrentPackage());
                int nameIdx = addToStringPool(globalArrayName);
                emit(Opcodes.LOAD_GLOBAL_ARRAY);
                emitReg(arrayReg);
                emit(nameIdx);
            }
        } else {
            // %$arrayref[...] / %{expr}[...] / $aref->%[...] / ['a'..'z']->%[...]
            leftOp.operand.accept(this);
            int scalarRefReg = lastResultReg;
            arrayReg = allocateRegister();
            emitWithToken(Opcodes.DEREF_ARRAY, node.getIndex());
            emitReg(arrayReg);
            emitReg(scalarRefReg);
        }

        if (!(node.right instanceof ArrayLiteralNode indicesNode)) {
            throwCompilerException("Index/value slice requires ArrayLiteralNode");
            return;
        }
        if (indicesNode.elements.isEmpty()) {
            throwCompilerException("Index/value slice requires at least one index");
            return;
        }

        // Compile indices into a list
        List<Integer> pairRegs = new ArrayList<>();
        for (Node indexElement : indicesNode.elements) {
            indexElement.accept(this);
            int indexReg = lastResultReg;

            int valueReg = allocateRegister();
            emit(Opcodes.ARRAY_GET);
            emitReg(valueReg);
            emitReg(arrayReg);
            emitReg(indexReg);

            pairRegs.add(indexReg);
            pairRegs.add(valueReg);
        }

        int listReg = allocateRegister();
        emit(Opcodes.CREATE_LIST);
        emitReg(listReg);
        emit(pairRegs.size());
        for (int r : pairRegs) {
            emitReg(r);
        }

        if (currentCallContext == RuntimeContextType.SCALAR) {
            int rd = allocateRegister();
            emit(Opcodes.LIST_TO_SCALAR);
            emitReg(rd);
            emitReg(listReg);
            lastResultReg = rd;
        } else {
            lastResultReg = listReg;
        }
    }

    @Override
    public void visit(StringNode node) {
        // Emit LOAD_STRING or LOAD_VSTRING depending on whether this is a v-string literal.
        // LOAD_VSTRING sets type=VSTRING so that ModuleOperators.require() recognises version strings.
        int rd = allocateRegister();
        int strIndex = addToStringPool(node.value);

        emit(node.isVString ? Opcodes.LOAD_VSTRING : Opcodes.LOAD_STRING);
        emitReg(rd);
        emit(strIndex);

        lastResultReg = rd;
    }

    @Override
    public void visit(IdentifierNode node) {
        // Variable reference
        String varName = node.name;

        // Check if this is a captured variable (with sigil)
        // Try common sigils: $, @, %
        String[] sigils = {"$", "@", "%"};
        for (String sigil : sigils) {
            String varNameWithSigil = sigil + varName;
            if (capturedVarIndices != null && capturedVarIndices.containsKey(varNameWithSigil)) {
                // Captured variable - use its pre-allocated register
                lastResultReg = capturedVarIndices.get(varNameWithSigil);
                return;
            }
        }

        // Check if it's a lexical variable (may have sigil or not)
        if (hasVariable(varName)) {
            // Lexical variable - already has a register
            lastResultReg = getVariableRegister(varName);
        } else {
            // Try with sigils
            boolean found = false;
            for (String sigil : sigils) {
                String varNameWithSigil = sigil + varName;
                if (hasVariable(varNameWithSigil)) {
                    lastResultReg = getVariableRegister(varNameWithSigil);
                    found = true;
                    break;
                }
            }

            if (!found) {
                // Not a lexical variable - could be a global or a bareword
                // Check for strict subs violation (bareword without sigil)
                if (!varName.startsWith("$") && !varName.startsWith("@") && !varName.startsWith("%")) {
                    // This is a bareword (no sigil)
                    if (emitterContext != null && emitterContext.symbolTable != null &&
                        emitterContext.symbolTable.isStrictOptionEnabled(Strict.HINT_STRICT_SUBS)) {
                        throwCompilerException("Bareword \"" + varName + "\" not allowed while \"strict subs\" in use");
                    }
                    // Not strict - treat bareword as string literal
                    int rd = allocateRegister();
                    emit(Opcodes.LOAD_STRING);
                    emitReg(rd);
                    int strIdx = addToStringPool(varName);
                    emit(strIdx);
                    lastResultReg = rd;
                    return;
                }

                // Global variable
                // Check strict vars before accessing
                if (shouldBlockGlobalUnderStrictVars(varName)) {
                    throwCompilerException("Global symbol \"" + varName + "\" requires explicit package name");
                }

                // Strip sigil and normalize name (e.g., "$x" → "main::x")
                String bareVarName = varName.substring(1);  // Remove sigil
                String normalizedName = NameNormalizer.normalizeVariableName(bareVarName, getCurrentPackage());
                int rd = allocateRegister();
                int nameIdx = addToStringPool(normalizedName);

                emit(Opcodes.LOAD_GLOBAL_SCALAR);
                emitReg(rd);
                emit(nameIdx);

                lastResultReg = rd;
            }
        }
    }

    /**
     * Handle hash slice operations: @hash{keys} or @$hashref{keys}
     * Must be called before automatic operand compilation to avoid compiling @ operator
     */
    /**
     * Handle array element access: $array[index]
     * Example: $ARGV[0] or $array[$i]
     */
    void handleArrayElementAccess(BinaryOperatorNode node, OperatorNode leftOp) {
        // Get the array variable name
        if (!(leftOp.operand instanceof IdentifierNode)) {
            throwCompilerException("Array element access requires identifier");
            return;
        }
        String varName = ((IdentifierNode) leftOp.operand).name;
        String arrayVarName = "@" + varName;

        // Get the array register - check lexical first, then global
        int arrayReg;
        if (hasVariable(arrayVarName)) {
            // Lexical array
            arrayReg = getVariableRegister(arrayVarName);
        } else {
            // Global array - load it
            arrayReg = allocateRegister();
            String globalArrayName = NameNormalizer.normalizeVariableName(
                varName,
                getCurrentPackage()
            );
            int nameIdx = addToStringPool(globalArrayName);
            emit(Opcodes.LOAD_GLOBAL_ARRAY);
            emitReg(arrayReg);
            emit(nameIdx);
        }

        // Compile the index expression (right side)
        if (!(node.right instanceof ArrayLiteralNode)) {
            throwCompilerException("Array subscript requires ArrayLiteralNode");
            return;
        }
        ArrayLiteralNode indexNode = (ArrayLiteralNode) node.right;
        if (indexNode.elements.isEmpty()) {
            throwCompilerException("Array subscript requires at least one index");
            return;
        }

        // Handle single element access: $array[0]
        if (indexNode.elements.size() == 1) {
            Node indexExpr = indexNode.elements.get(0);
            indexExpr.accept(this);
            int indexReg = lastResultReg;

            // Emit ARRAY_GET opcode
            int rd = allocateRegister();
            emit(Opcodes.ARRAY_GET);
            emitReg(rd);
            emitReg(arrayReg);
            emitReg(indexReg);

            lastResultReg = rd;
        } else {
            throwCompilerException("Multi-element array access not yet implemented");
        }
    }

    /**
     * Handle array slice: @array[indices]
     * Example: @array[0,2,4] or @array[1..5]
     */
    void handleArraySlice(BinaryOperatorNode node, OperatorNode leftOp) {
        int arrayReg;

        // Get the array - either direct @array or dereferenced @$arrayref
        if (leftOp.operand instanceof IdentifierNode) {
            // Direct array slice: @array[indices]
            String varName = ((IdentifierNode) leftOp.operand).name;
            String arrayVarName = "@" + varName;

            // Get the array register - check lexical first, then global
            if (hasVariable(arrayVarName)) {
                // Lexical array
                arrayReg = getVariableRegister(arrayVarName);
            } else {
                // Global array - load it
                arrayReg = allocateRegister();
                String globalArrayName = NameNormalizer.normalizeVariableName(
                    varName,
                    getCurrentPackage()
                );
                int nameIdx = addToStringPool(globalArrayName);
                emit(Opcodes.LOAD_GLOBAL_ARRAY);
                emitReg(arrayReg);
                emit(nameIdx);
            }
        } else if (leftOp.operand instanceof OperatorNode) {
            // Array dereference slice: @$arrayref[indices]
            OperatorNode derefOp = (OperatorNode) leftOp.operand;
            if (derefOp.operator.equals("$")) {
                // Compile the scalar reference
                derefOp.accept(this);
                int refReg = lastResultReg;

                // Dereference to get the array
                arrayReg = allocateRegister();
                emitWithToken(Opcodes.DEREF_ARRAY, node.getIndex());
                emitReg(arrayReg);
                emitReg(refReg);
            } else {
                throwCompilerException("Array slice requires array or array reference");
                return;
            }
        } else {
            throwCompilerException("Array slice requires identifier or reference");
            return;
        }

        // Compile the indices (right side) - this is an ArrayLiteralNode
        if (!(node.right instanceof ArrayLiteralNode)) {
            throwCompilerException("Array slice requires ArrayLiteralNode");
            return;
        }
        ArrayLiteralNode indicesNode = (ArrayLiteralNode) node.right;

        // Compile the indices into a list
        // The ArrayLiteralNode might contain a range operator (..) or multiple elements
        List<Integer> indexRegs = new ArrayList<>();
        for (Node indexExpr : indicesNode.elements) {
            // Each element could be a simple value or a range expression
            indexExpr.accept(this);
            indexRegs.add(lastResultReg);
        }

        // Create a RuntimeList from index registers
        int indicesListReg = allocateRegister();
        emit(Opcodes.CREATE_LIST);
        emitReg(indicesListReg);
        emit(indexRegs.size());
        for (int indexReg : indexRegs) {
            emitReg(indexReg);
        }

        // Emit ARRAY_SLICE opcode
        int rd = allocateRegister();
        emit(Opcodes.ARRAY_SLICE);
        emitReg(rd);
        emitReg(arrayReg);
        emitReg(indicesListReg);

        lastResultReg = rd;
    }

    /**
     * Handle hash element access: $hash{key}
     * Example: $hash{foo} or $hash{$key}
     */
    void handleHashElementAccess(BinaryOperatorNode node, OperatorNode leftOp) {
        // Get the hash variable name
        if (!(leftOp.operand instanceof IdentifierNode)) {
            throwCompilerException("Hash element access requires identifier");
            return;
        }
        String varName = ((IdentifierNode) leftOp.operand).name;
        String hashVarName = "%" + varName;

        // Get the hash register - check lexical first, then global
        int hashReg;
        if (hasVariable(hashVarName)) {
            // Lexical hash
            hashReg = getVariableRegister(hashVarName);
        } else {
            // Global hash - load it
            hashReg = allocateRegister();
            String globalHashName = NameNormalizer.normalizeVariableName(
                varName,
                getCurrentPackage()
            );
            int nameIdx = addToStringPool(globalHashName);
            emit(Opcodes.LOAD_GLOBAL_HASH);
            emitReg(hashReg);
            emit(nameIdx);
        }

        // Compile the key expression (right side)
        if (!(node.right instanceof HashLiteralNode)) {
            throwCompilerException("Hash subscript requires HashLiteralNode");
            return;
        }
        HashLiteralNode keyNode = (HashLiteralNode) node.right;
        if (keyNode.elements.isEmpty()) {
            throwCompilerException("Hash subscript requires at least one key");
            return;
        }

        // Handle single element access: $hash{key}
        if (keyNode.elements.size() == 1) {
            Node keyExpr = keyNode.elements.get(0);

            // Check if it's a bareword (IdentifierNode) - autoquote it
            if (keyExpr instanceof IdentifierNode) {
                String keyString = ((IdentifierNode) keyExpr).name;
                int keyReg = allocateRegister();
                int keyIdx = addToStringPool(keyString);
                emit(Opcodes.LOAD_STRING);
                emitReg(keyReg);
                emit(keyIdx);

                // Emit HASH_GET opcode
                int rd = allocateRegister();
                emit(Opcodes.HASH_GET);
                emitReg(rd);
                emitReg(hashReg);
                emitReg(keyReg);

                lastResultReg = rd;
            } else {
                // Expression key - compile it
                keyExpr.accept(this);
                int keyReg = lastResultReg;

                // Emit HASH_GET opcode
                int rd = allocateRegister();
                emit(Opcodes.HASH_GET);
                emitReg(rd);
                emitReg(hashReg);
                emitReg(keyReg);

                lastResultReg = rd;
            }
        } else {
            throwCompilerException("Multi-element hash access not yet implemented");
        }
    }

    void handleHashSlice(BinaryOperatorNode node, OperatorNode leftOp) {
        int hashReg;

        // Hash slice: @hash{'key1', 'key2'} returns array of values
        // Hashref slice: @$hashref{'key1', 'key2'} dereferences then slices

        if (leftOp.operand instanceof IdentifierNode) {
            // Direct hash slice: @hash{keys}
            String varName = ((IdentifierNode) leftOp.operand).name;
            String hashVarName = "%" + varName;

            // Get the hash - check lexical first, then global
            if (hasVariable(hashVarName)) {
                // Lexical hash
                hashReg = getVariableRegister(hashVarName);
            } else {
                // Global hash - load it
                hashReg = allocateRegister();
                String globalHashName = NameNormalizer.normalizeVariableName(
                    varName,
                    getCurrentPackage()
                );
                int nameIdx = addToStringPool(globalHashName);
                emit(Opcodes.LOAD_GLOBAL_HASH);
                emitReg(hashReg);
                emit(nameIdx);
            }
        } else if (leftOp.operand instanceof OperatorNode) {
            // Hashref slice: @$hashref{keys}
            // Compile the reference and dereference it
            leftOp.operand.accept(this);
            int scalarRefReg = lastResultReg;

            // Dereference to get the hash
            hashReg = allocateRegister();
            emitWithToken(Opcodes.DEREF_HASH, node.getIndex());
            emitReg(hashReg);
            emitReg(scalarRefReg);
        } else {
            throwCompilerException("Hash slice requires hash variable or reference");
            return;
        }

        // Get the keys from HashLiteralNode
        if (!(node.right instanceof HashLiteralNode)) {
            throwCompilerException("Hash slice requires HashLiteralNode");
        }
        HashLiteralNode keysNode = (HashLiteralNode) node.right;
        if (keysNode.elements.isEmpty()) {
            throwCompilerException("Hash slice requires at least one key");
        }

        // Compile all keys into a list
        List<Integer> keyRegs = new ArrayList<>();
        for (Node keyElement : keysNode.elements) {
            if (keyElement instanceof IdentifierNode) {
                // Bareword key - autoquote
                String keyString = ((IdentifierNode) keyElement).name;
                int keyReg = allocateRegister();
                int keyIdx = addToStringPool(keyString);
                emit(Opcodes.LOAD_STRING);
                emitReg(keyReg);
                emit(keyIdx);
                keyRegs.add(keyReg);
            } else {
                // Expression key
                keyElement.accept(this);
                keyRegs.add(lastResultReg);
            }
        }

        // Create a RuntimeList from key registers
        int keysListReg = allocateRegister();
        emit(Opcodes.CREATE_LIST);
        emitReg(keysListReg);
        emit(keyRegs.size());
        for (int keyReg : keyRegs) {
            emitReg(keyReg);
        }

        // Emit direct opcode HASH_SLICE
        int rdSlice = allocateRegister();
        emit(Opcodes.HASH_SLICE);
        emitReg(rdSlice);
        emitReg(hashReg);
        emitReg(keysListReg);

        lastResultReg = rdSlice;
    }

    void handleHashKeyValueSlice(BinaryOperatorNode node, OperatorNode leftOp) {
        int hashReg;

        // Key/value slice: %hash{keys} returns alternating key/value pairs.
        // Postfix ->%{...} is parsed into this form by the parser.

        if (leftOp.operand instanceof IdentifierNode) {
            // Direct key/value slice: %hash{keys}
            String varName = ((IdentifierNode) leftOp.operand).name;
            String hashVarName = "%" + varName;

            if (hasVariable(hashVarName)) {
                hashReg = getVariableRegister(hashVarName);
            } else {
                hashReg = allocateRegister();
                String globalHashName = NameNormalizer.normalizeVariableName(varName, getCurrentPackage());
                int nameIdx = addToStringPool(globalHashName);
                emit(Opcodes.LOAD_GLOBAL_HASH);
                emitReg(hashReg);
                emit(nameIdx);
            }
        } else {
            // %$hashref{keys} / %{expr}{keys} / $hashref->%{keys}
            // Compile operand to a scalar and then dereference as hash.
            leftOp.operand.accept(this);
            int scalarRefReg = lastResultReg;
            hashReg = allocateRegister();
            emitWithToken(Opcodes.DEREF_HASH, node.getIndex());
            emitReg(hashReg);
            emitReg(scalarRefReg);
        }

        if (!(node.right instanceof HashLiteralNode)) {
            throwCompilerException("Key/value slice requires HashLiteralNode");
            return;
        }

        HashLiteralNode keysNode = (HashLiteralNode) node.right;
        if (keysNode.elements.isEmpty()) {
            throwCompilerException("Key/value slice requires at least one key");
            return;
        }

        List<Integer> keyRegs = new ArrayList<>();
        for (Node keyElement : keysNode.elements) {
            if (keyElement instanceof IdentifierNode) {
                String keyString = ((IdentifierNode) keyElement).name;
                int keyReg = allocateRegister();
                int keyIdx = addToStringPool(keyString);
                emit(Opcodes.LOAD_STRING);
                emitReg(keyReg);
                emit(keyIdx);
                keyRegs.add(keyReg);
            } else {
                keyElement.accept(this);
                keyRegs.add(lastResultReg);
            }
        }

        int keysListReg = allocateRegister();
        emit(Opcodes.CREATE_LIST);
        emitReg(keysListReg);
        emit(keyRegs.size());
        for (int keyReg : keyRegs) {
            emitReg(keyReg);
        }

        int rd = allocateRegister();
        emit(Opcodes.HASH_KEYVALUE_SLICE);
        emitReg(rd);
        emitReg(hashReg);
        emitReg(keysListReg);
        if (currentCallContext == RuntimeContextType.SCALAR) {
            int scalarReg = allocateRegister();
            emit(Opcodes.LIST_TO_SCALAR);
            emitReg(scalarReg);
            emitReg(rd);
            lastResultReg = scalarReg;
        } else {
            lastResultReg = rd;
        }
    }

    /**
     * Handle compound assignment operators: +=, -=, *=, /=, %=
     * Example: $sum += $elem means $sum = $sum + $elem
     */
    void handleCompoundAssignment(BinaryOperatorNode node) {
        String op = node.operator;

        // Compile the right operand first (the value to add/subtract/etc.)
        int savedContext = currentCallContext;
        currentCallContext = RuntimeContextType.SCALAR;
        node.right.accept(this);
        int valueReg = lastResultReg;

        // Get the left operand register (the variable or expression being assigned to)
        int targetReg;
        boolean isGlobal = false;

        // Check if left side is a simple variable reference
        if (node.left instanceof OperatorNode) {
            OperatorNode leftOp = (OperatorNode) node.left;

            if (leftOp.operator.equals("$") && leftOp.operand instanceof IdentifierNode) {
                // Simple scalar variable: $x += 5
                String varName = "$" + ((IdentifierNode) leftOp.operand).name;

                if (hasVariable(varName)) {
                    // Lexical variable - use its register directly
                    targetReg = getVariableRegister(varName);
                } else {
                    // Global variable - need to load it first
                    isGlobal = true;
                    targetReg = allocateRegister();
                    // Strip sigil before normalizing (varName is "$x", need "x" for normalize)
                    String normalizedName = NameNormalizer.normalizeVariableName(
                        varName.substring(1), getCurrentPackage());
                    int nameIdx = addToStringPool(normalizedName);
                    emit(Opcodes.LOAD_GLOBAL_SCALAR);
                    emitReg(targetReg);
                    emit(nameIdx);
                }
            } else {
                // Other operator (not simple variable) - compile as expression in SCALAR context
                node.left.accept(this);
                targetReg = lastResultReg;
            }
        } else {
            // Not an OperatorNode (could be BinaryOperatorNode like ($x &= $y))
            // Compile the left side as an expression in SCALAR context
            node.left.accept(this);
            targetReg = lastResultReg;

            // Convert to scalar if it's a list
            if (!(lastResultReg == targetReg)) {
                // Already handled
            } else {
                // May need to convert list to scalar
                int scalarReg = allocateRegister();
                emit(Opcodes.LIST_TO_COUNT);
                emitReg(scalarReg);
                emitReg(targetReg);
                targetReg = scalarReg;
            }
        }

        // Emit the appropriate compound assignment opcode
        switch (op) {
            case "+=" -> emit(Opcodes.ADD_ASSIGN);
            case "-=" -> emit(Opcodes.SUBTRACT_ASSIGN);
            case "*=" -> emit(Opcodes.MULTIPLY_ASSIGN);
            case "/=" -> emit(Opcodes.DIVIDE_ASSIGN);
            case "%=" -> emit(Opcodes.MODULUS_ASSIGN);
            case ".=" -> emit(Opcodes.STRING_CONCAT_ASSIGN);
            case "&=", "binary&=" -> emit(Opcodes.BITWISE_AND_ASSIGN);  // Numeric bitwise AND
            case "|=", "binary|=" -> emit(Opcodes.BITWISE_OR_ASSIGN);   // Numeric bitwise OR
            case "^=", "binary^=" -> emit(Opcodes.BITWISE_XOR_ASSIGN);  // Numeric bitwise XOR
            case "&.=" -> emit(Opcodes.STRING_BITWISE_AND_ASSIGN);      // String bitwise AND
            case "|.=" -> emit(Opcodes.STRING_BITWISE_OR_ASSIGN);       // String bitwise OR
            case "^.=" -> emit(Opcodes.STRING_BITWISE_XOR_ASSIGN);      // String bitwise XOR
            case "x=" -> emit(Opcodes.REPEAT_ASSIGN);                   // String repetition
            case "**=" -> emit(Opcodes.POW_ASSIGN);                     // Exponentiation
            case "<<=" -> emit(Opcodes.LEFT_SHIFT_ASSIGN);              // Left shift
            case ">>=" -> emit(Opcodes.RIGHT_SHIFT_ASSIGN);             // Right shift
            case "&&=" -> emit(Opcodes.LOGICAL_AND_ASSIGN);             // Logical AND
            case "||=" -> emit(Opcodes.LOGICAL_OR_ASSIGN);              // Logical OR
            case "//=" -> emit(Opcodes.DEFINED_OR_ASSIGN);              // Defined-or
            default -> {
                throwCompilerException("Unknown compound assignment operator: " + op);
                currentCallContext = savedContext;
                return;
            }
        }

        emitReg(targetReg);
        emitReg(valueReg);

        // If it's a global variable, store it back
        if (isGlobal) {
            OperatorNode leftOp = (OperatorNode) node.left;
            String varName = "$" + ((IdentifierNode) leftOp.operand).name;

            // Check strict vars before compound assignment
            if (shouldBlockGlobalUnderStrictVars(varName)) {
                throwCompilerException("Global symbol \"" + varName + "\" requires explicit package name");
            }
            // LOAD_GLOBAL_SCALAR loaded the live object; the compound-assign opcode
            // already mutated it in-place via .set(), so no STORE_GLOBAL_SCALAR needed.
        }

        // The result is stored in targetReg
        lastResultReg = targetReg;
        currentCallContext = savedContext;
    }

    /**
     * Handle general array access: expr[index]
     * Example: $matrix[1][0] where $matrix[1] returns an arrayref
     */
    void handleGeneralArrayAccess(BinaryOperatorNode node) {
        // Compile the left side (the expression that should yield an array or arrayref)
        node.left.accept(this);
        int baseReg = lastResultReg;

        // Compile the index expression (right side)
        if (!(node.right instanceof ArrayLiteralNode)) {
            throwCompilerException("Array subscript requires ArrayLiteralNode");
            return;
        }
        ArrayLiteralNode indexNode = (ArrayLiteralNode) node.right;
        if (indexNode.elements.isEmpty()) {
            throwCompilerException("Array subscript requires at least one index");
            return;
        }

        // Handle single element access
        if (indexNode.elements.size() == 1) {
            Node indexExpr = indexNode.elements.get(0);
            indexExpr.accept(this);
            int indexReg = lastResultReg;

            // The base might be either:
            // 1. A RuntimeArray (from $array which was an array variable)
            // 2. A RuntimeScalar containing an arrayref (from $matrix[1])
            // We need to handle both cases. The ARRAY_GET opcode should handle
            // dereferencing if needed, or we can use a deref+get sequence.

            // For now, let's assume it's a scalar with arrayref and dereference it first
            int arrayReg = allocateRegister();
            emit(Opcodes.DEREF_ARRAY);
            emitReg(arrayReg);
            emitReg(baseReg);

            // Now get the element
            int rd = allocateRegister();
            emit(Opcodes.ARRAY_GET);
            emitReg(rd);
            emitReg(arrayReg);
            emitReg(indexReg);

            lastResultReg = rd;
        } else {
            throwCompilerException("Multi-element array access not yet implemented");
        }
    }

    /**
     * Handle general hash access: expr{key}
     * Example: $hash{outer}{inner} where $hash{outer} returns a hashref
     */
    void handleGeneralHashAccess(BinaryOperatorNode node) {
        // Compile the left side (the expression that should yield a hash or hashref)
        node.left.accept(this);
        int baseReg = lastResultReg;

        // Compile the key expression (right side)
        if (!(node.right instanceof HashLiteralNode)) {
            throwCompilerException("Hash subscript requires HashLiteralNode");
            return;
        }
        HashLiteralNode keyNode = (HashLiteralNode) node.right;
        if (keyNode.elements.isEmpty()) {
            throwCompilerException("Hash subscript requires at least one key");
            return;
        }

        // Handle single element access
        if (keyNode.elements.size() == 1) {
            Node keyExpr = keyNode.elements.get(0);

            // Compile the key
            int keyReg;
            if (keyExpr instanceof IdentifierNode) {
                // Bareword key - autoquote it
                String keyString = ((IdentifierNode) keyExpr).name;
                keyReg = allocateRegister();
                int keyIdx = addToStringPool(keyString);
                emit(Opcodes.LOAD_STRING);
                emitReg(keyReg);
                emit(keyIdx);
            } else {
                // Expression key - compile it
                keyExpr.accept(this);
                keyReg = lastResultReg;
            }

            // Check if this is a glob slot access: *X{key}
            // In this case, node.left is an OperatorNode with operator "*"
            boolean isGlobSlotAccess = (node.left instanceof OperatorNode) &&
                                       ((OperatorNode) node.left).operator.equals("*");

            if (isGlobSlotAccess) {
                // For glob slot access, call hashDerefGetNonStrict directly
                // This uses RuntimeGlob's override which accesses the slot without dereferencing
                int rd = allocateRegister();
                emit(Opcodes.GLOB_SLOT_GET);
                emitReg(rd);
                emitReg(baseReg);
                emitReg(keyReg);

                lastResultReg = rd;
            } else {
                // Normal hash access: dereference first, then get element
                // The base might be either:
                // 1. A RuntimeHash (from %hash which was a hash variable)
                // 2. A RuntimeScalar containing a hashref (from $hash{outer})
                // We need to handle both cases. Dereference if needed.

                int hashReg = allocateRegister();
                emit(Opcodes.DEREF_HASH);
                emitReg(hashReg);
                emitReg(baseReg);

                // Now get the element
                int rd = allocateRegister();
                emit(Opcodes.HASH_GET);
                emitReg(rd);
                emitReg(hashReg);
                emitReg(keyReg);

                lastResultReg = rd;
            }
        } else {
            throwCompilerException("Multi-element hash access not yet implemented");
        }
    }

    /**
     * Handle push/unshift operators: push @array, values or unshift @array, values
     * Example: push @arr, 1, 2, 3
     */
    void handlePushUnshift(BinaryOperatorNode node) {
        boolean isPush = node.operator.equals("push");

        // Left operand is the array (@array or @$arrayref)
        // Right operand is the list of values to push/unshift

        // Get the array
        int arrayReg;
        if (node.left instanceof OperatorNode) {
            OperatorNode leftOp = (OperatorNode) node.left;

            if (leftOp.operator.equals("@") && leftOp.operand instanceof IdentifierNode) {
                // Direct array: @array
                String varName = ((IdentifierNode) leftOp.operand).name;
                String arrayVarName = "@" + varName;

                // Get array register - check lexical first, then global
                if (hasVariable(arrayVarName)) {
                    arrayReg = getVariableRegister(arrayVarName);
                } else {
                    // Global array - load it
                    arrayReg = allocateRegister();
                    String globalArrayName = NameNormalizer.normalizeVariableName(
                        varName,
                        getCurrentPackage()
                    );
                    int nameIdx = addToStringPool(globalArrayName);
                    emit(Opcodes.LOAD_GLOBAL_ARRAY);
                    emitReg(arrayReg);
                    emit(nameIdx);
                }
            } else if (leftOp.operator.equals("@") && !(leftOp.operand instanceof IdentifierNode)) {
                // Array dereference: @$arrayref or @{expr}
                // Evaluate the operand expression to get the reference, then deref
                leftOp.operand.accept(this);
                int refReg = lastResultReg;

                // Dereference to get the array
                arrayReg = allocateRegister();
                emitWithToken(Opcodes.DEREF_ARRAY, node.getIndex());
                emitReg(arrayReg);
                emitReg(refReg);
            } else {
                throwCompilerException("push/unshift requires array or array reference");
                return;
            }
        } else {
            throwCompilerException("push/unshift requires array operand");
            return;
        }

        // Compile the values to push/unshift (right operand) in list context
        int savedContext = currentCallContext;
        currentCallContext = RuntimeContextType.LIST;
        node.right.accept(this);
        int valuesReg = lastResultReg;
        currentCallContext = savedContext;

        // Emit ARRAY_PUSH or ARRAY_UNSHIFT opcode
        if (isPush) {
            emit(Opcodes.ARRAY_PUSH);
        } else {
            emit(Opcodes.ARRAY_UNSHIFT);
        }
        emitReg(arrayReg);
        emitReg(valuesReg);

        // push/unshift return the new array size in scalar context
        int rd = allocateRegister();
        emit(Opcodes.ARRAY_SIZE);
        emitReg(rd);
        emitReg(arrayReg);
        lastResultReg = rd;
    }

    @Override
    public void visit(BinaryOperatorNode node) {
        CompileBinaryOperator.visitBinaryOperator(this, node);
    }

    /**
     * Compile variable declaration operators (my, our, local, state).
     * Extracted to reduce visit(OperatorNode) bytecode size.
     */
    void compileVariableDeclaration(OperatorNode node, String op) {
        if (op.equals("my") || op.equals("state")) {
            // my $x / my @x / my %x / state $x / state @x / state %x - variable declaration
            // The operand will be OperatorNode("$"/"@"/"%", IdentifierNode("x"))
            if (node.operand instanceof OperatorNode) {
                OperatorNode sigilOp = (OperatorNode) node.operand;
                String sigil = sigilOp.operator;

                if (sigilOp.operand instanceof IdentifierNode) {
                    String varName = sigil + ((IdentifierNode) sigilOp.operand).name;

                    // Check if this is a declared reference (my \$x or state \$x)
                    boolean isDeclaredReference = node.annotations != null &&
                            Boolean.TRUE.equals(node.annotations.get("isDeclaredReference"));

                    // Check if this variable is captured by closures (sigilOp.id != 0) or is a state variable
                    // State variables always use persistent storage
                    if (sigilOp.id != 0 || op.equals("state")) {
                        // Variable is captured by compiled named subs or is a state variable
                        // Store as persistent variable so both interpreted and compiled code can access it
                        // Don't use a local register; instead load/store through persistent globals

                        // For state variables, retrieve or initialize the persistent variable
                        // For captured variables, retrieve the BEGIN-initialized variable
                        int reg = allocateRegister();
                        int nameIdx = addToStringPool(varName);

                        switch (sigil) {
                            case "$" -> {
                                emitWithToken(Opcodes.RETRIEVE_BEGIN_SCALAR, node.getIndex());
                                emitReg(reg);
                                emit(nameIdx);
                                emit(sigilOp.id);
                                // Track this as a captured/state variable - map to the register we allocated
                                variableScopes.peek().put(varName, reg);
                            allDeclaredVariables.put(varName, reg);  // Track for variableRegistry
                            }
                            case "@" -> {
                                emitWithToken(Opcodes.RETRIEVE_BEGIN_ARRAY, node.getIndex());
                                emitReg(reg);
                                emit(nameIdx);
                                emit(sigilOp.id);
                                variableScopes.peek().put(varName, reg);
                            allDeclaredVariables.put(varName, reg);  // Track for variableRegistry
                            }
                            case "%" -> {
                                emitWithToken(Opcodes.RETRIEVE_BEGIN_HASH, node.getIndex());
                                emitReg(reg);
                                emit(nameIdx);
                                emit(sigilOp.id);
                                variableScopes.peek().put(varName, reg);
                            allDeclaredVariables.put(varName, reg);  // Track for variableRegistry
                            }
                            default -> throwCompilerException("Unsupported variable type: " + sigil);
                        }

                        // If this is a declared reference, create a reference to it
                        if (isDeclaredReference && currentCallContext != RuntimeContextType.VOID) {
                            int refReg = allocateRegister();
                            emit(Opcodes.CREATE_REF);
                            emitReg(refReg);
                            emitReg(reg);
                            lastResultReg = refReg;
                        } else {
                            lastResultReg = reg;
                        }
                        return;
                    }

                    // Regular lexical variable (not captured, not state)
                    int reg = addVariable(varName, "my");

                    // Normal initialization: load undef/empty array/empty hash
                    switch (sigil) {
                        case "$" -> {
                            emit(Opcodes.LOAD_UNDEF);
                            emitReg(reg);
                        }
                        case "@" -> {
                            emit(Opcodes.NEW_ARRAY);
                            emitReg(reg);
                        }
                        case "%" -> {
                            emit(Opcodes.NEW_HASH);
                            emitReg(reg);
                        }
                        default -> throwCompilerException("Unsupported variable type: " + sigil);
                    }

                    // If this is a declared reference, create a reference to it
                    if (isDeclaredReference && currentCallContext != RuntimeContextType.VOID) {
                        int refReg = allocateRegister();
                        emit(Opcodes.CREATE_REF);
                        emitReg(refReg);
                        emitReg(reg);
                        lastResultReg = refReg;
                    } else {
                        lastResultReg = reg;
                    }
                    return;
                }

                // Handle my \\$x - reference to a declared reference (double backslash)
                if (sigil.equals("\\")) {
                    boolean isDeclaredReference = node.annotations != null &&
                            Boolean.TRUE.equals(node.annotations.get("isDeclaredReference"));

                    if (isDeclaredReference) {
                        // my \\$x means: declare a reference variable (my \$x) and then take a reference to that.
                        // Compile the inner declared-ref my in current context, then wrap with CREATE_REF.
                        OperatorNode innerMy = new OperatorNode(op, sigilOp.operand, node.getIndex());
                        innerMy.setAnnotation("isDeclaredReference", true);
                        innerMy.accept(this);
                        int innerReg = lastResultReg;

                        if (currentCallContext != RuntimeContextType.VOID && innerReg != -1) {
                            int refReg = allocateRegister();
                            emit(Opcodes.CREATE_REF);
                            emitReg(refReg);
                            emitReg(innerReg);
                            lastResultReg = refReg;
                        }
                        return;
                    }
                }
            } else if (node.operand instanceof ListNode) {
                // my ($x, $y, @rest) - list of variable declarations
                ListNode listNode = (ListNode) node.operand;
                List<Integer> varRegs = new ArrayList<>();
                List<Boolean> wrapWithRef = new ArrayList<>();

                // Check if this is a declared reference (my \($x, $y))
                boolean isDeclaredReference = node.annotations != null &&
                        Boolean.TRUE.equals(node.annotations.get("isDeclaredReference"));

                // Track if we found any backslash operators inside the list (my (\($x, $y)))
                // Note: backslash inside the list should only affect that element, not the whole list.
                boolean foundBackslashInList = false;

                for (Node element : listNode.elements) {
                    if (element instanceof OperatorNode) {
                        OperatorNode sigilOp = (OperatorNode) element;
                        String sigil = sigilOp.operator;

                        // Handle backslash operator (reference constructor): my (\$x) or my (\($x, $y))
                        if (sigil.equals("\\")) {
                            // Parser may represent element-level double-backslash (\\$i) as a single backslash
                            // node annotated with declaredReferenceOriginalSigil="\\".
                            Object elementOriginalSigilObj = sigilOp.annotations != null
                                    ? sigilOp.annotations.get("declaredReferenceOriginalSigil")
                                    : null;
                            if ("\\".equals(elementOriginalSigilObj) && sigilOp.getBooleanAnnotation("isDeclaredReference")
                                    && sigilOp.operand instanceof OperatorNode varNode
                                    && "$@%".contains(varNode.operator)
                                    && varNode.operand instanceof IdentifierNode idNode) {
                                String baseName = idNode.name;

                                // Declare the scalar reference variable $name
                                String scalarName = "$" + baseName;
                                int scalarReg = addVariable(scalarName, op);
                                emit(Opcodes.LOAD_UNDEF);
                                emitReg(scalarReg);

                                // Allocate/initialize the underlying storage and create a reference to it
                                int declaredReg;
                                if ("$".equals(varNode.operator)) {
                                    declaredReg = allocateRegister();
                                    emit(Opcodes.LOAD_UNDEF);
                                    emitReg(declaredReg);
                                } else {
                                    String declaredVarName = varNode.operator + baseName;
                                    declaredReg = addVariable(declaredVarName, op);
                                    if ("@".equals(varNode.operator)) {
                                        emit(Opcodes.NEW_ARRAY);
                                        emitReg(declaredReg);
                                    } else {
                                        emit(Opcodes.NEW_HASH);
                                        emitReg(declaredReg);
                                    }
                                }

                                int refReg = allocateRegister();
                                emit(Opcodes.CREATE_REF);
                                emitReg(refReg);
                                emitReg(declaredReg);
                                emit(Opcodes.SET_SCALAR);
                                emitReg(scalarReg);
                                emitReg(refReg);

                                // Return a reference to $name (ref-to-ref semantics)
                                int scalarRefReg = allocateRegister();
                                emit(Opcodes.CREATE_REF);
                                emitReg(scalarRefReg);
                                emitReg(scalarReg);
                                varRegs.add(scalarRefReg);
                                wrapWithRef.add(false);
                                continue;
                            }

                            // Check if it's a double backslash first: my (\\$x)
                            if (sigilOp.operand instanceof OperatorNode innerBackslash &&
                                       innerBackslash.operator.equals("\\")) {
                                // Double backslash: my (\\$x)
                                // This creates a reference to a reference
                                // We handle this completely here and add the final result to varRegs
                                // Don't set foundBackslashInList since we're creating references ourselves

                                // Recursively compile the inner part
                                // Create a temporary my node for the inner backslash
                                OperatorNode innerMy = new OperatorNode("my", innerBackslash, node.getIndex());
                                if (node.annotations != null && Boolean.TRUE.equals(node.annotations.get("isDeclaredReference"))) {
                                    innerMy.setAnnotation("isDeclaredReference", true);
                                }
                                innerMy.accept(this);

                                // The inner result is in lastResultReg, now create a reference to it
                                if (currentCallContext != RuntimeContextType.VOID && lastResultReg != -1) {
                                    int refReg = allocateRegister();
                                    emit(Opcodes.CREATE_REF);
                                    emitReg(refReg);
                                    emitReg(lastResultReg);
                                    varRegs.add(refReg);
                                    wrapWithRef.add(false);
                                }
                                continue;
                            }

                            // Single backslash - this element should become a reference
                            foundBackslashInList = true;

                            // Check if it's a nested list: my (\($d, $e))
                            if (sigilOp.operand instanceof ListNode nestedList) {
                                // Process each element in the nested list as a declared reference
                                for (Node nestedElement : nestedList.elements) {
                                    if (nestedElement instanceof OperatorNode nestedVarNode &&
                                        "$@%".contains(nestedVarNode.operator)) {
                                        // Get the variable name
                                        if (nestedVarNode.operand instanceof IdentifierNode idNode) {
                                            // Initialize based on original sigil.
                                            // Declared refs declare the underlying variable and return a reference to it.
                                            // We keep the underlying variable with its original sigil ($/@/%) and later
                                            // create references when building the return list.
                                            String originalSigil = nestedVarNode.operator;
                                            String declaredVarName = originalSigil + idNode.name;

                                            // Declare the underlying variable (not $-renamed)
                                            int declaredReg = addVariable(declaredVarName, op);

                                            switch (originalSigil) {
                                                case "$" -> {
                                                    emit(Opcodes.LOAD_UNDEF);
                                                    emitReg(declaredReg);
                                                }
                                                case "@" -> {
                                                    emit(Opcodes.NEW_ARRAY);
                                                    emitReg(declaredReg);
                                                }
                                                case "%" -> {
                                                    emit(Opcodes.NEW_HASH);
                                                    emitReg(declaredReg);
                                                }
                                            }

                                            int refReg = allocateRegister();
                                            emit(Opcodes.CREATE_REF);
                                            emitReg(refReg);
                                            emitReg(declaredReg);
                                            varRegs.add(refReg);
                                            wrapWithRef.add(false);
                                        }
                                    }
                                }
                            } else if (sigilOp.operand instanceof OperatorNode varNode &&
                                       "$@%".contains(varNode.operator)) {
                                // Single variable: my (\$x) or state (\$x) or my (\@x) or my (\%x)
                                if (varNode.operand instanceof IdentifierNode idNode) {
                                    String originalSigil = varNode.operator;
                                    String declaredVarName = originalSigil + idNode.name;

                                    // Declare the underlying variable (not $-renamed)
                                    int reg = addVariable(declaredVarName, op);

                                    switch (originalSigil) {
                                        case "$" -> {
                                            emit(Opcodes.LOAD_UNDEF);
                                            emitReg(reg);
                                        }
                                        case "@" -> {
                                            emit(Opcodes.NEW_ARRAY);
                                            emitReg(reg);
                                        }
                                        case "%" -> {
                                            emit(Opcodes.NEW_HASH);
                                            emitReg(reg);
                                        }
                                    }

                                    int refReg = allocateRegister();
                                    emit(Opcodes.CREATE_REF);
                                    emitReg(refReg);
                                    emitReg(reg);
                                    varRegs.add(refReg);
                                    wrapWithRef.add(false);
                                }
                            }
                            continue;
                        }

                        // local @x / local %x in list form
                        if ((sigil.equals("@") || sigil.equals("%")) && sigilOp.operand instanceof IdentifierNode idNode) {
                            String varName = sigil + idNode.name;
                            if (hasVariable(varName)) {
                                throwCompilerException("Can't localize lexical variable " + varName);
                            }

                            String globalVarName = NameNormalizer.normalizeVariableName(idNode.name, getCurrentPackage());
                            int nameIdx = addToStringPool(globalVarName);

                            int rd = allocateRegister();
                            if (sigil.equals("@")) {
                                emitWithToken(Opcodes.LOCAL_ARRAY, node.getIndex());
                            } else {
                                emitWithToken(Opcodes.LOCAL_HASH, node.getIndex());
                            }
                            emitReg(rd);
                            emit(nameIdx);
                            varRegs.add(rd);
                            continue;
                        }

                        if (sigilOp.operand instanceof IdentifierNode) {
                            String varName = sigil + ((IdentifierNode) sigilOp.operand).name;

                            // Parser may rewrite list elements like \$f/\@f/\%f into a scalar $f (dropping the backslash node).
                            // Preserve semantics here by initializing $f to a reference to the underlying storage and
                            // returning the reference value from the declaration expression.
                            boolean elementIsDeclaredReference = sigilOp.getBooleanAnnotation("isDeclaredReference");
                            Object originalSigilObj = sigilOp.annotations != null ? sigilOp.annotations.get("declaredReferenceOriginalSigil") : null;
                            if (elementIsDeclaredReference && "$".equals(sigil) && ("$".equals(originalSigilObj) || "@".equals(originalSigilObj) || "%".equals(originalSigilObj))) {
                                String originalSigil = (String) originalSigilObj;
                                String baseName = ((IdentifierNode) sigilOp.operand).name;
                                String declaredVarName = originalSigil + baseName;

                                // Declare the scalar variable $name
                                int scalarReg = addVariable(varName, op);
                                emit(Opcodes.LOAD_UNDEF);
                                emitReg(scalarReg);

                                // Declare and initialize the underlying storage
                                int declaredReg;
                                if ("$".equals(originalSigil)) {
                                    // For declared scalar refs: allocate a fresh scalar lvalue and store a reference to it in $name
                                    declaredReg = allocateRegister();
                                    emit(Opcodes.LOAD_UNDEF);
                                    emitReg(declaredReg);
                                } else {
                                    declaredReg = addVariable(declaredVarName, op);
                                    if ("@".equals(originalSigil)) {
                                        emit(Opcodes.NEW_ARRAY);
                                        emitReg(declaredReg);
                                    } else {
                                        emit(Opcodes.NEW_HASH);
                                        emitReg(declaredReg);
                                    }
                                }

                                // Set $name to a reference to the underlying variable
                                int refReg = allocateRegister();
                                emit(Opcodes.CREATE_REF);
                                emitReg(refReg);
                                emitReg(declaredReg);
                                emit(Opcodes.SET_SCALAR);
                                emitReg(scalarReg);
                                emitReg(refReg);

                                // Element-level declared refs:
                                // - \$f expects a REF value (\$f)
                                // - \@f/\%f expect the referent ARRAY/HASH ref value
                                if ("$".equals(originalSigil)) {
                                    int scalarRefReg = allocateRegister();
                                    emit(Opcodes.CREATE_REF);
                                    emitReg(scalarRefReg);
                                    emitReg(scalarReg);
                                    varRegs.add(scalarRefReg);
                                } else {
                                    varRegs.add(refReg);
                                }
                                wrapWithRef.add(false);
                                continue;
                            }

                            // Check if this variable is captured by closures or is a state variable
                            if (sigilOp.id != 0 || op.equals("state")) {
                                // Variable is captured or is a state variable - use persistent storage
                                int reg = allocateRegister();
                                int nameIdx = addToStringPool(varName);

                                switch (sigil) {
                                    case "$" -> {
                                        emitWithToken(Opcodes.RETRIEVE_BEGIN_SCALAR, node.getIndex());
                                        emitReg(reg);
                                        emit(nameIdx);
                                        emit(sigilOp.id);
                                        variableScopes.peek().put(varName, reg);
                            allDeclaredVariables.put(varName, reg);  // Track for variableRegistry
                                    }
                                    case "@" -> {
                                        emitWithToken(Opcodes.RETRIEVE_BEGIN_ARRAY, node.getIndex());
                                        emitReg(reg);
                                        emit(nameIdx);
                                        emit(sigilOp.id);
                                        variableScopes.peek().put(varName, reg);
                            allDeclaredVariables.put(varName, reg);  // Track for variableRegistry
                                    }
                                    case "%" -> {
                                        emitWithToken(Opcodes.RETRIEVE_BEGIN_HASH, node.getIndex());
                                        emitReg(reg);
                                        emit(nameIdx);
                                        emit(sigilOp.id);
                                        variableScopes.peek().put(varName, reg);
                            allDeclaredVariables.put(varName, reg);  // Track for variableRegistry
                                    }
                                    default -> throwCompilerException("Unsupported variable type in list declaration: " + sigil);
                                }

                                varRegs.add(reg);
                                wrapWithRef.add(isDeclaredReference);
                            } else {
                                // Regular lexical variable (not captured, not state)
                                int reg = addVariable(varName, op);

                                // Initialize the variable
                                switch (sigil) {
                                    case "$" -> {
                                        emit(Opcodes.LOAD_UNDEF);
                                        emitReg(reg);
                                    }
                                    case "@" -> {
                                        emit(Opcodes.NEW_ARRAY);
                                        emitReg(reg);
                                    }
                                    case "%" -> {
                                        emit(Opcodes.NEW_HASH);
                                        emitReg(reg);
                                    }
                                    default -> throwCompilerException("Unsupported variable type in list declaration: " + sigil);
                                }

                                varRegs.add(reg);
                                wrapWithRef.add(isDeclaredReference);
                            }
                        } else if (sigilOp.operand instanceof OperatorNode) {
                            // Handle declared references with backslash: my (\$x)
                            // The backslash operator wraps the variable
                            // For now, skip these as they require special handling
                            continue;
                        } else {
                            throwCompilerException("my list declaration requires identifier: " + sigilOp.operand.getClass().getSimpleName());
                        }
                    } else if (element instanceof ListNode) {
                        // Nested list: my (($x, $y))
                        // Skip nested lists for now
                        continue;
                    } else {
                        throwCompilerException("my list declaration requires scalar/array/hash: " + element.getClass().getSimpleName());
                    }
                }

                // Return a list of the declared variables (or their references if isDeclaredReference).
                int resultReg = allocateRegister();

                if (currentCallContext != RuntimeContextType.VOID) {
                    // Build the return list, optionally wrapping only selected elements with CREATE_REF.
                    List<Integer> outRegs = new ArrayList<>();
                    for (int i = 0; i < varRegs.size(); i++) {
                        int vReg = varRegs.get(i);
                        if (isDeclaredReference && i < wrapWithRef.size() && Boolean.TRUE.equals(wrapWithRef.get(i))) {
                            int refReg = allocateRegister();
                            emit(Opcodes.CREATE_REF);
                            emitReg(refReg);
                            emitReg(vReg);
                            outRegs.add(refReg);
                        } else {
                            outRegs.add(vReg);
                        }
                    }

                    if (currentCallContext == RuntimeContextType.SCALAR) {
                        // In scalar context, declaration lists return the last element.
                        if (outRegs.isEmpty()) {
                            lastResultReg = -1;
                            return;
                        }
                        lastResultReg = outRegs.get(outRegs.size() - 1);
                        return;
                    }

                    emit(Opcodes.CREATE_LIST);
                    emitReg(resultReg);
                    emit(outRegs.size());
                    for (int outReg : outRegs) {
                        emitReg(outReg);
                    }
                } else {
                    emit(Opcodes.CREATE_LIST);
                    emitReg(resultReg);
                    emit(0);
                }

                lastResultReg = resultReg;
                return;
            }
            throwCompilerException("Unsupported my operand: " + node.operand.getClass().getSimpleName());
        } else if (op.equals("our")) {
            // our $x / our @x / our %x - package variable declaration
            // The operand will be OperatorNode("$"/"@"/"%", IdentifierNode("x"))
            if (node.operand instanceof OperatorNode) {
                OperatorNode sigilOp = (OperatorNode) node.operand;
                String sigil = sigilOp.operator;

                if (sigilOp.operand instanceof IdentifierNode) {
                    String varName = sigil + ((IdentifierNode) sigilOp.operand).name;

                    // Parser may rewrite element-level declared refs like \$h/\@h/\%h into a scalar $h
                    // with annotations (isDeclaredReference + declaredReferenceOriginalSigil).
                    // Handle that here for single-variable our declarations.
                    if ("$".equals(sigil) && sigilOp.getBooleanAnnotation("isDeclaredReference") && sigilOp.annotations != null
                            && sigilOp.annotations.get("declaredReferenceOriginalSigil") instanceof String originalSigil
                            && ("$".equals(originalSigil) || "@".equals(originalSigil) || "%".equals(originalSigil))) {

                        String baseName = ((IdentifierNode) sigilOp.operand).name;

                        // Declare/load the package scalar $baseName
                        String scalarVarName = "$" + baseName;
                        int scalarReg = hasVariable(scalarVarName) ? getVariableRegister(scalarVarName) : addVariable(scalarVarName, "our");
                        String globalScalarName = NameNormalizer.normalizeVariableName(baseName, getCurrentPackage());
                        int scalarNameIdx = addToStringPool(globalScalarName);
                        emit(Opcodes.LOAD_GLOBAL_SCALAR);
                        emitReg(scalarReg);
                        emit(scalarNameIdx);

                        int declaredReg;
                        if ("$".equals(originalSigil)) {
                            // Hidden scalar storage for declared-ref scalars
                            declaredReg = allocateRegister();
                            emit(Opcodes.LOAD_UNDEF);
                            emitReg(declaredReg);
                        } else {
                            // Underlying package @/%, declared reference points at the container
                            String declaredVarName = originalSigil + baseName;
                            declaredReg = hasVariable(declaredVarName) ? getVariableRegister(declaredVarName) : addVariable(declaredVarName, "our");
                            String globalName = NameNormalizer.normalizeVariableName(baseName, getCurrentPackage());
                            int nameIdx = addToStringPool(globalName);
                            if ("@".equals(originalSigil)) {
                                emit(Opcodes.LOAD_GLOBAL_ARRAY);
                            } else {
                                emit(Opcodes.LOAD_GLOBAL_HASH);
                            }
                            emitReg(declaredReg);
                            emit(nameIdx);
                        }

                        // Set $baseName to reference to underlying storage
                        int refReg = allocateRegister();
                        emit(Opcodes.CREATE_REF);
                        emitReg(refReg);
                        emitReg(declaredReg);
                        emit(Opcodes.SET_SCALAR);
                        emitReg(scalarReg);
                        emitReg(refReg);

                        if (currentCallContext != RuntimeContextType.VOID) {
                            if ("$".equals(originalSigil)) {
                                // Return \$h (a REF) for scalar declared-ref elements
                                int scalarRefReg = allocateRegister();
                                emit(Opcodes.CREATE_REF);
                                emitReg(scalarRefReg);
                                emitReg(scalarReg);
                                lastResultReg = scalarRefReg;
                            } else {
                                // Return the referent arrayref/hashref value
                                lastResultReg = refReg;
                            }
                        } else {
                            lastResultReg = -1;
                        }
                        return;
                    }

                    // Check if this is a declared reference (our \$x)
                    boolean isDeclaredReference = node.annotations != null &&
                            Boolean.TRUE.equals(node.annotations.get("isDeclaredReference"));

                    // Check if already declared in current scope
                    if (hasVariable(varName)) {
                        // Already declared, just return the existing register
                        int reg = getVariableRegister(varName);

                        // If this is a declared reference, create a reference to it
                        if (isDeclaredReference && currentCallContext != RuntimeContextType.VOID) {
                            int refReg = allocateRegister();
                            emit(Opcodes.CREATE_REF);
                            emitReg(refReg);
                            emitReg(reg);
                            lastResultReg = refReg;
                        } else {
                            lastResultReg = reg;
                        }
                        return;
                    }

                    // Allocate register and add to symbol table
                    int reg = addVariable(varName, "our");

                    // Load from global variable using normalized name
                    String globalVarName = NameNormalizer.normalizeVariableName(
                        ((IdentifierNode) sigilOp.operand).name,
                        getCurrentPackage()
                    );
                    int nameIdx = addToStringPool(globalVarName);

                    switch (sigil) {
                        case "$" -> {
                            emit(Opcodes.LOAD_GLOBAL_SCALAR);
                            emitReg(reg);
                            emit(nameIdx);
                        }
                        case "@" -> {
                            emit(Opcodes.LOAD_GLOBAL_ARRAY);
                            emitReg(reg);
                            emit(nameIdx);
                        }
                        case "%" -> {
                            emit(Opcodes.LOAD_GLOBAL_HASH);
                            emitReg(reg);
                            emit(nameIdx);
                        }
                        default -> throwCompilerException("Unsupported variable type: " + sigil);
                    }

                    // If this is a declared reference, create a reference to it
                    if (isDeclaredReference && currentCallContext != RuntimeContextType.VOID) {
                        int refReg = allocateRegister();
                        emit(Opcodes.CREATE_REF);
                        emitReg(refReg);
                        emitReg(reg);
                        lastResultReg = refReg;
                    } else {
                        lastResultReg = reg;
                    }
                    return;
                }

                // Handle our \\$x - reference to a declared reference (double backslash)
                if (sigil.equals("\\")) {
                    boolean isDeclaredReference = node.annotations != null &&
                            Boolean.TRUE.equals(node.annotations.get("isDeclaredReference"));

                    if (isDeclaredReference) {
                        // This is our \\$x which means: create a declared reference and then take a reference to it
                        // The operand is \$x, so we recursively compile it
                        sigilOp.accept(this);
                        // The result is now in lastResultReg
                        return;
                    }
                }
            } else if (node.operand instanceof ListNode) {
                // our ($x, $y) - list of package variable declarations
                ListNode listNode = (ListNode) node.operand;
                List<Integer> varRegs = new ArrayList<>();

                // Check if this is a declared reference (our \($x, $y))
                boolean isDeclaredReference = node.annotations != null &&
                        Boolean.TRUE.equals(node.annotations.get("isDeclaredReference"));

                // Track if we found any backslash operators inside the list
                // Note: backslash inside the list should only affect that element, not the whole list.
                boolean foundBackslashInList = false;

                for (Node element : listNode.elements) {
                    if (element instanceof OperatorNode) {
                        OperatorNode sigilOp = (OperatorNode) element;
                        String sigil = sigilOp.operator;

                        // Parser may rewrite element-level declared refs like \$h/\@h/\%h into a scalar $h
                        // with annotations (isDeclaredReference + declaredReferenceOriginalSigil).
                        if ("$".equals(sigil) && sigilOp.operand instanceof IdentifierNode idNode
                                && sigilOp.getBooleanAnnotation("isDeclaredReference")
                                && sigilOp.annotations != null
                                && sigilOp.annotations.get("declaredReferenceOriginalSigil") instanceof String originalSigil
                                && ("$".equals(originalSigil) || "@".equals(originalSigil) || "%".equals(originalSigil))) {

                            String baseName = idNode.name;

                            // Declare/load the package scalar $baseName
                            String scalarVarName = "$" + baseName;
                            int scalarReg = hasVariable(scalarVarName) ? getVariableRegister(scalarVarName) : addVariable(scalarVarName, "our");
                            String globalScalarName = NameNormalizer.normalizeVariableName(baseName, getCurrentPackage());
                            int scalarNameIdx = addToStringPool(globalScalarName);
                            emit(Opcodes.LOAD_GLOBAL_SCALAR);
                            emitReg(scalarReg);
                            emit(scalarNameIdx);

                            int declaredReg;
                            if ("$".equals(originalSigil)) {
                                declaredReg = allocateRegister();
                                emit(Opcodes.LOAD_UNDEF);
                                emitReg(declaredReg);
                            } else {
                                String declaredVarName = originalSigil + baseName;
                                declaredReg = hasVariable(declaredVarName) ? getVariableRegister(declaredVarName) : addVariable(declaredVarName, "our");
                                String globalName = NameNormalizer.normalizeVariableName(baseName, getCurrentPackage());
                                int nameIdx = addToStringPool(globalName);
                                if ("@".equals(originalSigil)) {
                                    emit(Opcodes.LOAD_GLOBAL_ARRAY);
                                } else {
                                    emit(Opcodes.LOAD_GLOBAL_HASH);
                                }
                                emitReg(declaredReg);
                                emit(nameIdx);
                            }

                            int refReg = allocateRegister();
                            emit(Opcodes.CREATE_REF);
                            emitReg(refReg);
                            emitReg(declaredReg);
                            emit(Opcodes.SET_SCALAR);
                            emitReg(scalarReg);
                            emitReg(refReg);

                            if ("$".equals(originalSigil)) {
                                int scalarRefReg = allocateRegister();
                                emit(Opcodes.CREATE_REF);
                                emitReg(scalarRefReg);
                                emitReg(scalarReg);
                                varRegs.add(scalarRefReg);
                            } else {
                                varRegs.add(refReg);
                            }
                            continue;
                        }

                        // Handle backslash operator (reference constructor): our (\$x) or our (\($x, $y))
                        if (sigil.equals("\\")) {
                            // Check if it's a double backslash first: our (\\$x)
                            if (sigilOp.operand instanceof OperatorNode innerBackslash &&
                                       innerBackslash.operator.equals("\\")) {
                                // Double backslash: our (\\$x)
                                // Recursively compile the inner part
                                OperatorNode innerOur = new OperatorNode("our", innerBackslash, node.getIndex());
                                if (node.annotations != null && Boolean.TRUE.equals(node.annotations.get("isDeclaredReference"))) {
                                    innerOur.setAnnotation("isDeclaredReference", true);
                                }
                                innerOur.accept(this);

                                // Create a reference to the result
                                if (currentCallContext != RuntimeContextType.VOID && lastResultReg != -1) {
                                    int refReg = allocateRegister();
                                    emit(Opcodes.CREATE_REF);
                                    emitReg(refReg);
                                    emitReg(lastResultReg);
                                    varRegs.add(refReg);
                                }
                                continue;
                            }

                            // Single backslash - this element should become a reference
                            foundBackslashInList = true;

                            // Check if it's a nested list: our (\($d, $e))
                            if (sigilOp.operand instanceof ListNode nestedList) {
                                // Process each element in the nested list as a declared reference
                                for (Node nestedElement : nestedList.elements) {
                                    if (nestedElement instanceof OperatorNode nestedVarNode &&
                                        "$@%".contains(nestedVarNode.operator)) {
                                        if (nestedVarNode.operand instanceof IdentifierNode idNode) {
                                            String originalSigil = nestedVarNode.operator;
                                            String varName = originalSigil + idNode.name;

                                            // Declare and load the package variable
                                            int reg = addVariable(varName, "our");
                                            String globalVarName = NameNormalizer.normalizeVariableName(
                                                idNode.name,
                                                getCurrentPackage()
                                            );
                                            int nameIdx = addToStringPool(globalVarName);

                                            // Load based on original sigil
                                            switch (originalSigil) {
                                                case "$" -> {
                                                    emit(Opcodes.LOAD_GLOBAL_SCALAR);
                                                    emitReg(reg);
                                                    emit(nameIdx);
                                                }
                                                case "@" -> {
                                                    emit(Opcodes.LOAD_GLOBAL_ARRAY);
                                                    emitReg(reg);
                                                    emit(nameIdx);
                                                }
                                                case "%" -> {
                                                    emit(Opcodes.LOAD_GLOBAL_HASH);
                                                    emitReg(reg);
                                                    emit(nameIdx);
                                                }
                                            }

                                            int refReg = allocateRegister();
                                            emit(Opcodes.CREATE_REF);
                                            emitReg(refReg);
                                            emitReg(reg);
                                            varRegs.add(refReg);
                                        }
                                    }
                                }
                            } else if (sigilOp.operand instanceof OperatorNode varNode &&
                                       "$@%".contains(varNode.operator)) {
                                // Single variable: our (\$x) or our (\@x) or our (\%x)
                                if (varNode.operand instanceof IdentifierNode idNode) {
                                    String originalSigil = varNode.operator;
                                    String varName = originalSigil + idNode.name;

                                    // Declare and load the package variable
                                    int reg = addVariable(varName, "our");
                                    String globalVarName = NameNormalizer.normalizeVariableName(
                                        idNode.name,
                                        getCurrentPackage()
                                    );
                                    int nameIdx = addToStringPool(globalVarName);

                                    // Load based on original sigil
                                    switch (originalSigil) {
                                        case "$" -> {
                                            emit(Opcodes.LOAD_GLOBAL_SCALAR);
                                            emitReg(reg);
                                            emit(nameIdx);
                                        }
                                        case "@" -> {
                                            emit(Opcodes.LOAD_GLOBAL_ARRAY);
                                            emitReg(reg);
                                            emit(nameIdx);
                                        }
                                        case "%" -> {
                                            emit(Opcodes.LOAD_GLOBAL_HASH);
                                            emitReg(reg);
                                            emit(nameIdx);
                                        }
                                    }

                                    int refReg = allocateRegister();
                                    emit(Opcodes.CREATE_REF);
                                    emitReg(refReg);
                                    emitReg(reg);
                                    varRegs.add(refReg);
                                }
                            }
                            continue;
                        }

                        if (sigilOp.operand instanceof IdentifierNode) {
                            String varName = sigil + ((IdentifierNode) sigilOp.operand).name;

                            int reg;
                            // Check if already declared in current scope
                            if (hasVariable(varName)) {
                                // Already declared, just use existing register
                                reg = getVariableRegister(varName);
                            } else {
                                // Allocate register and add to symbol table
                                reg = addVariable(varName, "our");

                                // Load from global variable using normalized name
                                String globalVarName = NameNormalizer.normalizeVariableName(
                                    ((IdentifierNode) sigilOp.operand).name,
                                    getCurrentPackage()
                                );
                                int nameIdx = addToStringPool(globalVarName);

                                switch (sigil) {
                                    case "$" -> {
                                        emit(Opcodes.LOAD_GLOBAL_SCALAR);
                                        emitReg(reg);
                                        emit(nameIdx);
                                    }
                                    case "@" -> {
                                        emit(Opcodes.LOAD_GLOBAL_ARRAY);
                                        emitReg(reg);
                                        emit(nameIdx);
                                    }
                                    case "%" -> {
                                        emit(Opcodes.LOAD_GLOBAL_HASH);
                                        emitReg(reg);
                                        emit(nameIdx);
                                    }
                                    default -> throwCompilerException("Unsupported variable type in list declaration: " + sigil);
                                }
                            }

                            varRegs.add(reg);
                        } else {
                            throwCompilerException("our list declaration requires identifier: " + sigilOp.operand.getClass().getSimpleName());
                        }
                    } else {
                        throwCompilerException("our list declaration requires scalar/array/hash: " + element.getClass().getSimpleName());
                    }
                }

                // Return a list of the declared variables (or their references if isDeclaredReference)
                int resultReg = allocateRegister();

                if (currentCallContext != RuntimeContextType.VOID) {
                    // Create references to all variables first
                    List<Integer> refRegs = new ArrayList<>();
                    for (int varReg : varRegs) {
                        if (isDeclaredReference) {
                            int refReg = allocateRegister();
                            emit(Opcodes.CREATE_REF);
                            emitReg(refReg);
                            emitReg(varReg);
                            refRegs.add(refReg);
                        } else {
                            refRegs.add(varReg);
                        }
                    }

                    if (currentCallContext == RuntimeContextType.SCALAR) {
                        lastResultReg = refRegs.isEmpty() ? -1 : refRegs.get(refRegs.size() - 1);
                        return;
                    }

                    // Create a list of the references
                    emit(Opcodes.CREATE_LIST);
                    emitReg(resultReg);
                    emit(refRegs.size());
                    for (int refReg : refRegs) {
                        emitReg(refReg);
                    }
                } else {
                    // Regular list of variables
                    emit(Opcodes.CREATE_LIST);
                    emitReg(resultReg);
                    emit(varRegs.size());
                    for (int varReg : varRegs) {
                        emitReg(varReg);
                    }
                }

                lastResultReg = resultReg;
                return;
            }
            throwCompilerException("Unsupported our operand: " + node.operand.getClass().getSimpleName());
        } else if (op.equals("local")) {
            // local $x - temporarily localize a global variable
            // The operand will be OperatorNode("$", IdentifierNode("x"))
            if (node.operand instanceof OperatorNode) {
                OperatorNode sigilOp = (OperatorNode) node.operand;
                String sigil = sigilOp.operator;

                if (sigil.equals("$") && sigilOp.operand instanceof IdentifierNode) {
                    String varName = "$" + ((IdentifierNode) sigilOp.operand).name;

                    // Check if it's a lexical variable (should not be localized)
                    if (hasVariable(varName)) {
                        throwCompilerException("Can't localize lexical variable " + varName);
                        return;
                    }

                    // Check if this is a declared reference (local \$x)
                    boolean isDeclaredReference = node.annotations != null &&
                            Boolean.TRUE.equals(node.annotations.get("isDeclaredReference"));

                    // It's a global variable - emit SLOW_OP to call GlobalRuntimeScalar.makeLocal()
                    String globalVarName = NameNormalizer.normalizeVariableName(((IdentifierNode) sigilOp.operand).name, getCurrentPackage());
                    int nameIdx = addToStringPool(globalVarName);

                    int rd = allocateRegister();
                    emitWithToken(Opcodes.LOCAL_SCALAR, node.getIndex());
                    emitReg(rd);
                    emit(nameIdx);

                    // If this is a declared reference, create a reference to it
                    if (isDeclaredReference && currentCallContext != RuntimeContextType.VOID) {
                        int refReg = allocateRegister();
                        emit(Opcodes.CREATE_REF);
                        emitReg(refReg);
                        emitReg(rd);
                        lastResultReg = refReg;
                    } else {
                        lastResultReg = rd;
                    }
                    return;
                }

                // local @x / local %x - localize global array/hash
                if ((sigil.equals("@") || sigil.equals("%")) && sigilOp.operand instanceof IdentifierNode idNode) {
                    String varName = sigil + idNode.name;

                    if (hasVariable(varName)) {
                        throwCompilerException("Can't localize lexical variable " + varName);
                        return;
                    }

                    boolean isDeclaredReference = node.annotations != null &&
                            Boolean.TRUE.equals(node.annotations.get("isDeclaredReference"));

                    String globalVarName = NameNormalizer.normalizeVariableName(idNode.name, getCurrentPackage());
                    int nameIdx = addToStringPool(globalVarName);

                    int rd = allocateRegister();
                    if (sigil.equals("@")) {
                        emitWithToken(Opcodes.LOCAL_ARRAY, node.getIndex());
                    } else {
                        emitWithToken(Opcodes.LOCAL_HASH, node.getIndex());
                    }
                    emitReg(rd);
                    emit(nameIdx);

                    if (isDeclaredReference && currentCallContext != RuntimeContextType.VOID) {
                        int refReg1 = allocateRegister();
                        emit(Opcodes.CREATE_REF);
                        emitReg(refReg1);
                        emitReg(rd);

                        int refReg2 = allocateRegister();
                        emit(Opcodes.CREATE_REF);
                        emitReg(refReg2);
                        emitReg(refReg1);
                        lastResultReg = refReg2;
                    } else {
                        lastResultReg = rd;
                    }
                    return;
                }

                // Handle local \$x or local \\$x - backslash operator
                if (sigil.equals("\\")) {
                    boolean isDeclaredReference = node.annotations != null &&
                            Boolean.TRUE.equals(node.annotations.get("isDeclaredReference"));

                    if (isDeclaredReference) {
                        // Check if operand is a variable operator ($, @, %)
                        if (sigilOp.operand instanceof OperatorNode innerOp &&
                            "$@%".contains(innerOp.operator) &&
                            innerOp.operand instanceof IdentifierNode idNode) {

                            String originalSigil = innerOp.operator;
                            String varName = originalSigil + idNode.name;

                            // Check if it's a lexical variable
                            if (hasVariable(varName)) {
                                throwCompilerException("Can't localize lexical variable " + varName);
                                return;
                            }

                            // Localize global variable
                            String globalVarName = NameNormalizer.normalizeVariableName(idNode.name, getCurrentPackage());
                            int nameIdx = addToStringPool(globalVarName);

                            int rd = allocateRegister();
                            if (originalSigil.equals("$")) {
                                emitWithToken(Opcodes.LOCAL_SCALAR, node.getIndex());
                                emitReg(rd);
                                emit(nameIdx);
                            } else if (originalSigil.equals("@")) {
                                emitWithToken(Opcodes.LOCAL_ARRAY, node.getIndex());
                                emitReg(rd);
                                emit(nameIdx);
                            } else {
                                emitWithToken(Opcodes.LOCAL_HASH, node.getIndex());
                                emitReg(rd);
                                emit(nameIdx);
                            }

                            // Create first reference
                            int refReg1 = allocateRegister();
                            emit(Opcodes.CREATE_REF);
                            emitReg(refReg1);
                            emitReg(rd);

                            // Check if the backslash operator itself has isDeclaredReference annotation
                            // which indicates this is \\$x (double backslash)
                            boolean backslashIsDeclaredRef = sigilOp.annotations != null &&
                                    Boolean.TRUE.equals(sigilOp.annotations.get("isDeclaredReference"));

                            if (backslashIsDeclaredRef) {
                                // Double backslash: create second reference
                                int refReg2 = allocateRegister();
                                emit(Opcodes.CREATE_REF);
                                emitReg(refReg2);
                                emitReg(refReg1);
                                lastResultReg = refReg2;
                            } else {
                                // Single backslash: just one reference
                                lastResultReg = refReg1;
                            }
                            return;
                        }
                    }
                }
            } else if (node.operand instanceof ListNode) {
                // local ($x, $y) - list of localized global variables
                ListNode listNode = (ListNode) node.operand;
                List<Integer> varRegs = new ArrayList<>();

                // Check if this is a declared reference
                boolean isDeclaredReference = node.annotations != null &&
                        Boolean.TRUE.equals(node.annotations.get("isDeclaredReference"));

                // Track if we found any backslash operators inside the list
                boolean foundBackslashInList = false;

                for (Node element : listNode.elements) {
                    if (element instanceof OperatorNode) {
                        OperatorNode sigilOp = (OperatorNode) element;
                        String sigil = sigilOp.operator;

                        // Handle backslash operator: local (\$x) or local (\($x, $y))
                        if (sigil.equals("\\")) {
                            // Check if backslash itself has isDeclaredReference (indicates \\$ in source)
                            boolean backslashIsDeclaredRef = sigilOp.annotations != null &&
                                    Boolean.TRUE.equals(sigilOp.annotations.get("isDeclaredReference"));

                            if (backslashIsDeclaredRef) {
                                // Double backslash: local (\\$x)
                                // Localize, create ref, create ref to ref
                                if (sigilOp.operand instanceof OperatorNode varNode &&
                                    "$@%".contains(varNode.operator) &&
                                    varNode.operand instanceof IdentifierNode idNode) {

                                    String varName = varNode.operator + idNode.name;

                                    // Check if it's a lexical variable
                                    if (hasVariable(varName)) {
                                        throwCompilerException("Can't localize lexical variable " + varName);
                                    }

                                    // Localize global variable
                                    String globalVarName = NameNormalizer.normalizeVariableName(idNode.name, getCurrentPackage());
                                    int nameIdx = addToStringPool(globalVarName);

                                    int rd = allocateRegister();
                                    if (varNode.operator.equals("$")) {
                                        emitWithToken(Opcodes.LOCAL_SCALAR, node.getIndex());
                                        emitReg(rd);
                                        emit(nameIdx);
                                    } else if (varNode.operator.equals("@")) {
                                        emitWithToken(Opcodes.LOCAL_ARRAY, node.getIndex());
                                        emitReg(rd);
                                        emit(nameIdx);
                                    } else {
                                        emitWithToken(Opcodes.LOCAL_HASH, node.getIndex());
                                        emitReg(rd);
                                        emit(nameIdx);
                                    }

                                    // Create first reference
                                    int refReg1 = allocateRegister();
                                    emit(Opcodes.CREATE_REF);
                                    emitReg(refReg1);
                                    emitReg(rd);

                                    // Create second reference
                                    int refReg2 = allocateRegister();
                                    emit(Opcodes.CREATE_REF);
                                    emitReg(refReg2);
                                    emitReg(refReg1);

                                    varRegs.add(refReg2);
                                }
                                continue;
                            }

                            // Single backslash
                            foundBackslashInList = true;

                            // Check if it's a nested list
                            if (sigilOp.operand instanceof ListNode nestedList) {
                                for (Node nestedElement : nestedList.elements) {
                                    if (nestedElement instanceof OperatorNode nestedVarNode &&
                                        "$@%".contains(nestedVarNode.operator) &&
                                        nestedVarNode.operand instanceof IdentifierNode idNode) {
                                        String varName = nestedVarNode.operator + idNode.name;

                                        // Check if it's a lexical variable
                                        if (hasVariable(varName)) {
                                            throwCompilerException("Can't localize lexical variable " + varName);
                                        }

                                        // Localize global variable
                                        String globalVarName = NameNormalizer.normalizeVariableName(idNode.name, getCurrentPackage());
                                        int nameIdx = addToStringPool(globalVarName);

                                        int rd = allocateRegister();
                                        if (nestedVarNode.operator.equals("$")) {
                                            emitWithToken(Opcodes.LOCAL_SCALAR, node.getIndex());
                                            emitReg(rd);
                                            emit(nameIdx);
                                        } else if (nestedVarNode.operator.equals("@")) {
                                            emitWithToken(Opcodes.LOCAL_ARRAY, node.getIndex());
                                            emitReg(rd);
                                            emit(nameIdx);
                                        } else {
                                            emitWithToken(Opcodes.LOCAL_HASH, node.getIndex());
                                            emitReg(rd);
                                            emit(nameIdx);
                                        }

                                        varRegs.add(rd);
                                    }
                                }
                            } else if (sigilOp.operand instanceof OperatorNode varNode &&
                                       "$@%".contains(varNode.operator) &&
                                       varNode.operand instanceof IdentifierNode idNode) {
                                // Single variable: local (\$x), local (\@x), local (\%x)
                                String originalSigil = varNode.operator;
                                String varName = originalSigil + idNode.name;

                                // Check if it's a lexical variable
                                if (hasVariable(varName)) {
                                    throwCompilerException("Can't localize lexical variable " + varName);
                                }

                                // Localize global variable
                                String globalVarName = NameNormalizer.normalizeVariableName(idNode.name, getCurrentPackage());
                                int nameIdx = addToStringPool(globalVarName);

                                int rd = allocateRegister();
                                if (originalSigil.equals("$")) {
                                    emitWithToken(Opcodes.LOCAL_SCALAR, node.getIndex());
                                    emitReg(rd);
                                    emit(nameIdx);
                                } else if (originalSigil.equals("@")) {
                                    emitWithToken(Opcodes.LOCAL_ARRAY, node.getIndex());
                                    emitReg(rd);
                                    emit(nameIdx);
                                } else {
                                    emitWithToken(Opcodes.LOCAL_HASH, node.getIndex());
                                    emitReg(rd);
                                    emit(nameIdx);
                                }

                                varRegs.add(rd);
                            }
                            continue;
                        }

                        // Regular scalar variable in list
                        if (sigil.equals("$") && sigilOp.operand instanceof IdentifierNode idNode) {
                            String varName = "$" + idNode.name;

                            // Check if it's a lexical variable
                            if (hasVariable(varName)) {
                                throwCompilerException("Can't localize lexical variable " + varName);
                            }

                            // Localize global variable
                            String globalVarName = NameNormalizer.normalizeVariableName(idNode.name, getCurrentPackage());
                            int nameIdx = addToStringPool(globalVarName);

                            int rd = allocateRegister();
                            emitWithToken(Opcodes.LOCAL_SCALAR, node.getIndex());
                            emitReg(rd);
                            emit(nameIdx);

                            varRegs.add(rd);
                        }
                    }
                }

                // Return a list of the localized variables (or their references)
                int resultReg = allocateRegister();

                if ((isDeclaredReference || foundBackslashInList) && currentCallContext != RuntimeContextType.VOID) {
                    // Create references to all variables first
                    List<Integer> refRegs = new ArrayList<>();
                    for (int varReg : varRegs) {
                        int refReg = allocateRegister();
                        emit(Opcodes.CREATE_REF);
                        emitReg(refReg);
                        emitReg(varReg);
                        refRegs.add(refReg);
                    }

                    // Create a list of the references
                    emit(Opcodes.CREATE_LIST);
                    emitReg(resultReg);
                    emit(refRegs.size());
                    for (int refReg : refRegs) {
                        emitReg(refReg);
                    }
                } else {
                    // Regular list of variables
                    emit(Opcodes.CREATE_LIST);
                    emitReg(resultReg);
                    emit(varRegs.size());
                    for (int varReg : varRegs) {
                        emitReg(varReg);
                    }
                }

                lastResultReg = resultReg;
                return;
            }
            // local *GLOB - localize a typeglob
            if (node.operand instanceof OperatorNode sigilOp2
                    && sigilOp2.operator.equals("*")
                    && sigilOp2.operand instanceof IdentifierNode idNode2) {
                String globalName = NameNormalizer.normalizeVariableName(idNode2.name, getCurrentPackage());
                int nameIdx = addToStringPool(globalName);
                int rd = allocateRegister();
                emit(Opcodes.LOCAL_GLOB);
                emitReg(rd);
                emit(nameIdx);
                lastResultReg = rd;
                return;
            }
            throwCompilerException("Unsupported local operand: " + node.operand.getClass().getSimpleName());
        }
        throwCompilerException("Unsupported variable declaration operator: " + op);
    }

    void compileVariableReference(OperatorNode node, String op) {
        if (op.equals("$")) {
            // Scalar variable dereference: $x
            if (node.operand instanceof IdentifierNode) {
                String varName = "$" + ((IdentifierNode) node.operand).name;

                // Check if this is a closure variable captured from outer scope via PersistentVariable
                if (currentSubroutineBeginId != 0 && currentSubroutineClosureVars.contains(varName)) {
                    // This is a closure variable - use RETRIEVE_BEGIN_SCALAR
                    int rd = allocateRegister();
                    int nameIdx = addToStringPool(varName);

                    emitWithToken(Opcodes.RETRIEVE_BEGIN_SCALAR, node.getIndex());
                    emitReg(rd);
                    emit(nameIdx);
                    emit(currentSubroutineBeginId);

                    lastResultReg = rd;
                } else if (hasVariable(varName)) {
                    // Lexical variable - use existing register
                    lastResultReg = getVariableRegister(varName);
                } else {
                    // Global variable - check strict vars then load
                    if (shouldBlockGlobalUnderStrictVars(varName)) {
                        throwCompilerException("Global symbol \"" + varName + "\" requires explicit package name");
                    }

                    // Use NameNormalizer to properly handle special variables (like $&)
                    // which must always be in the "main" package
                    String globalVarName = varName.substring(1); // Remove $ sigil first
                    globalVarName = NameNormalizer.normalizeVariableName(
                        globalVarName,
                        getCurrentPackage()
                    );

                    int rd = allocateRegister();
                    int nameIdx = addToStringPool(globalVarName);

                    emit(Opcodes.LOAD_GLOBAL_SCALAR);
                    emitReg(rd);
                    emit(nameIdx);

                    lastResultReg = rd;
                }
            } else if (node.operand instanceof BlockNode) {
                // Symbolic reference via block: ${label:expr} or ${expr}
                // Execute the block to get a variable name string, then load that variable
                BlockNode block = (BlockNode) node.operand;

                // Check strict refs at compile time — mirrors JVM path in EmitVariable.java
                block.accept(this);
                int blockResultReg = lastResultReg;
                int rd = allocateRegister();
                if (isStrictRefsEnabled()) {
                    // strict refs: scalarDeref() — throws for non-refs
                    emitWithToken(Opcodes.DEREF_SCALAR_STRICT, node.getIndex());
                    emitReg(rd);
                    emitReg(blockResultReg);
                } else {
                    // no strict refs: scalarDerefNonStrict(pkg) — allows symrefs
                    int pkgIdx = addToStringPool(getCurrentPackage());
                    emitWithToken(Opcodes.DEREF_SCALAR_NONSTRICT, node.getIndex());
                    emitReg(rd);
                    emitReg(blockResultReg);
                    emit(pkgIdx);
                }
                lastResultReg = rd;
            } else if (node.operand instanceof OperatorNode) {
                // Operator dereference: $$x, $${expr}, etc.
                // Compile the operand expression (e.g., $x returns a reference)
                node.operand.accept(this);
                int refReg = lastResultReg;

                // Dereference the result
                // Use strict/non-strict variants to match JVM behavior and strict refs semantics.
                int rd = allocateRegister();
                if (isStrictRefsEnabled()) {
                    emitWithToken(Opcodes.DEREF_SCALAR_STRICT, node.getIndex());
                    emitReg(rd);
                    emitReg(refReg);
                } else {
                    int pkgIdx = addToStringPool(getCurrentPackage());
                    emitWithToken(Opcodes.DEREF_SCALAR_NONSTRICT, node.getIndex());
                    emitReg(rd);
                    emitReg(refReg);
                    emit(pkgIdx);
                }
                lastResultReg = rd;
            } else {
                throwCompilerException("Unsupported $ operand: " + node.operand.getClass().getSimpleName());
            }
        } else if (op.equals("@")) {
            // Array variable dereference: @x or @_ or @$arrayref
            if (node.operand instanceof IdentifierNode) {
                String varName = "@" + ((IdentifierNode) node.operand).name;

                // Special case: @_ is register 1
                if (varName.equals("@_")) {
                    int arrayReg = 1; // @_ is always in register 1

                    // Check if we're in scalar context - if so, return array size
                    if (currentCallContext == RuntimeContextType.SCALAR) {
                        int rd = allocateRegister();
                        emit(Opcodes.ARRAY_SIZE);
                        emitReg(rd);
                        emitReg(arrayReg);
                        lastResultReg = rd;
                    } else {
                        lastResultReg = arrayReg;
                    }
                    return;
                }

                // Check if this is a closure variable captured from outer scope via PersistentVariable
                int arrayReg;
                if (currentSubroutineBeginId != 0 && currentSubroutineClosureVars.contains(varName)) {
                    // This is a closure variable - use RETRIEVE_BEGIN_ARRAY
                    arrayReg = allocateRegister();
                    int nameIdx = addToStringPool(varName);

                    emitWithToken(Opcodes.RETRIEVE_BEGIN_ARRAY, node.getIndex());
                    emitReg(arrayReg);
                    emit(nameIdx);
                    emit(currentSubroutineBeginId);
                } else if (hasVariable(varName)) {
                    // Lexical array - use existing register
                    arrayReg = getVariableRegister(varName);
                } else {
                    // Global array - load it
                    arrayReg = allocateRegister();
                    String globalArrayName = NameNormalizer.normalizeVariableName(((IdentifierNode) node.operand).name, getCurrentPackage());
                    int nameIdx = addToStringPool(globalArrayName);

                    emit(Opcodes.LOAD_GLOBAL_ARRAY);
                    emitReg(arrayReg);
                    emit(nameIdx);
                }

                // Check if we're in scalar context - if so, return array size
                if (currentCallContext == RuntimeContextType.SCALAR) {
                    int rd = allocateRegister();
                    emit(Opcodes.ARRAY_SIZE);
                    emitReg(rd);
                    emitReg(arrayReg);
                    lastResultReg = rd;
                } else {
                    lastResultReg = arrayReg;
                }
            } else if (node.operand instanceof OperatorNode) {
                // Dereference: @$arrayref or @{$hashref}
                OperatorNode operandOp = (OperatorNode) node.operand;

                // Compile the reference
                operandOp.accept(this);
                int refReg = lastResultReg;

                // Dereference to get the array
                // The reference should contain a RuntimeArray
                // For @$scalar, we need to dereference it
                int rd = allocateRegister();
                emitWithToken(Opcodes.DEREF_ARRAY, node.getIndex());
                emitReg(rd);
                emitReg(refReg);

                lastResultReg = rd;
                // Note: We don't check scalar context here because dereferencing
                // should return the array itself. The slice or other operation
                // will handle scalar context conversion if needed.
            } else if (node.operand instanceof BlockNode) {
                // @{ block } - evaluate block and dereference the result
                // The block should return an arrayref
                BlockNode blockNode = (BlockNode) node.operand;
                blockNode.accept(this);
                int refReg = lastResultReg;

                // Dereference to get the array
                int rd = allocateRegister();
                emitWithToken(Opcodes.DEREF_ARRAY, node.getIndex());
                emitReg(rd);
                emitReg(refReg);

                lastResultReg = rd;
            } else if (node.operand instanceof StringNode strNode) {
                // Symbolic ref: @{'name'} or 'name'->@* — load global array by string name
                String globalName = NameNormalizer.normalizeVariableName(strNode.value, getCurrentPackage());
                int nameIdx = addToStringPool(globalName);
                int rd = allocateRegister();
                emit(Opcodes.LOAD_GLOBAL_ARRAY);
                emitReg(rd);
                emit(nameIdx);
                lastResultReg = rd;
            } else {
                throwCompilerException("Unsupported @ operand: " + node.operand.getClass().getSimpleName());
            }
        } else if (op.equals("%")) {
            // Hash variable dereference: %x
            if (node.operand instanceof IdentifierNode) {
                String varName = "%" + ((IdentifierNode) node.operand).name;

                // Get the hash register
                int hashReg;
                if (hasVariable(varName)) {
                    // Lexical hash - use existing register
                    hashReg = getVariableRegister(varName);
                } else {
                    // Global hash - load it
                    hashReg = allocateRegister();
                    String globalHashName = NameNormalizer.normalizeVariableName(((IdentifierNode) node.operand).name, getCurrentPackage());
                    int nameIdx = addToStringPool(globalHashName);

                    emit(Opcodes.LOAD_GLOBAL_HASH);
                    emitReg(hashReg);
                    emit(nameIdx);
                }

                // Check if we're in scalar context - if so, return hash as scalar (bucket info)
                if (currentCallContext == RuntimeContextType.SCALAR) {
                    int rd = allocateRegister();
                    emit(Opcodes.ARRAY_SIZE);  // Works for hashes too - calls .scalar()
                    emitReg(rd);
                    emitReg(hashReg);
                    lastResultReg = rd;
                } else {
                    lastResultReg = hashReg;
                }
            } else if (node.operand instanceof OperatorNode refOp) {
                // %$ref or %{expr} — dereference scalar to hash
                refOp.accept(this);
                int scalarReg = lastResultReg;
                int hashReg = allocateRegister();
                emitWithToken(Opcodes.DEREF_HASH, node.getIndex());
                emitReg(hashReg);
                emitReg(scalarReg);
                if (currentCallContext == RuntimeContextType.SCALAR) {
                    int rd = allocateRegister();
                    emit(Opcodes.ARRAY_SIZE);
                    emitReg(rd);
                    emitReg(hashReg);
                    lastResultReg = rd;
                } else {
                    lastResultReg = hashReg;
                }
            } else if (node.operand instanceof BlockNode blockNode) {
                // %{ block } — evaluate block and dereference to hash
                blockNode.accept(this);
                int scalarReg = lastResultReg;
                int hashReg = allocateRegister();
                emitWithToken(Opcodes.DEREF_HASH, node.getIndex());
                emitReg(hashReg);
                emitReg(scalarReg);
                lastResultReg = hashReg;
            } else if (node.operand instanceof StringNode strNode) {
                // Symbolic ref: %{'name'} or 'name'->%* — load global hash by string name
                String globalName = NameNormalizer.normalizeVariableName(strNode.value, getCurrentPackage());
                int nameIdx = addToStringPool(globalName);
                int hashReg = allocateRegister();
                emit(Opcodes.LOAD_GLOBAL_HASH);
                emitReg(hashReg);
                emit(nameIdx);
                lastResultReg = hashReg;
            } else {
                throwCompilerException("Unsupported % operand: " + node.operand.getClass().getSimpleName());
            }
        } else if (op.equals("*")) {
            // Glob variable dereference: *x
            if (node.operand instanceof IdentifierNode) {
                IdentifierNode idNode = (IdentifierNode) node.operand;
                String varName = idNode.name;

                // Add package prefix if not present
                if (!varName.contains("::")) {
                    varName = getCurrentPackage() + "::" + varName;
                }

                // Allocate register for glob
                int rd = allocateRegister();
                int nameIdx = addToStringPool(varName);

                // Emit direct opcode LOAD_GLOB
                emitWithToken(Opcodes.LOAD_GLOB, node.getIndex());
                emitReg(rd);
                emit(nameIdx);

                lastResultReg = rd;
            } else if (node.operand instanceof StringNode strNode) {
                // Symbolic ref: *{'name'} or 'name'->** — load global glob by string name
                String varName = strNode.value;
                if (!varName.contains("::")) {
                    varName = getCurrentPackage() + "::" + varName;
                }
                int rd = allocateRegister();
                int nameIdx = addToStringPool(varName);
                emitWithToken(Opcodes.LOAD_GLOB, node.getIndex());
                emitReg(rd);
                emit(nameIdx);
                lastResultReg = rd;
            } else if (node.operand instanceof OperatorNode) {
                // $ref->** — dereference a scalar as a glob (e.g. postfix deref)
                node.operand.accept(this);
                int refReg = lastResultReg;
                int rd = allocateRegister();
                int pkgIdx = addToStringPool(getCurrentPackage()); // consumed but unused at runtime
                emitWithToken(Opcodes.DEREF_GLOB, node.getIndex());
                emitReg(rd);
                emitReg(refReg);
                emit(pkgIdx);
                lastResultReg = rd;
            } else {
                throwCompilerException("Unsupported * operand: " + node.operand.getClass().getSimpleName());
            }
        } else if (op.equals("&")) {
            // Code reference: &subname
            // Gets a reference to a named subroutine
            if (node.operand instanceof IdentifierNode) {
                IdentifierNode idNode = (IdentifierNode) node.operand;
                String subName = idNode.name;

                // Use NameNormalizer to properly handle package prefixes
                // This will add the current package if no package is specified
                subName = NameNormalizer.normalizeVariableName(subName, getCurrentPackage());

                // Allocate register for code reference
                int rd = allocateRegister();
                int nameIdx = addToStringPool(subName);

                // Emit LOAD_GLOBAL_CODE
                emit(Opcodes.LOAD_GLOBAL_CODE);
                emitReg(rd);
                emit(nameIdx);

                lastResultReg = rd;
            } else {
                throwCompilerException("Unsupported & operand: " + node.operand.getClass().getSimpleName());
            }
        } else if (op.equals("\\")) {
            // Reference operator: \$x, \@x, \%x, \*x, etc.
            if (node.operand != null) {
                // Special case: \&name — CODE is already a reference type.
                // Emit LOAD_GLOBAL_CODE directly without CREATE_REF, matching JVM compiler.
                if (node.operand instanceof OperatorNode operandOp
                        && operandOp.operator.equals("&")
                        && operandOp.operand instanceof IdentifierNode) {
                    node.operand.accept(this);
                    // lastResultReg already holds the CODE scalar — no wrapping needed
                    return;
                }

                // Compile operand in LIST context to get the actual value
                // Example: \@array should get a reference to the array itself,
                // not its size (which would happen in SCALAR context)
                int savedContext = currentCallContext;
                currentCallContext = RuntimeContextType.LIST;
                try {
                    node.operand.accept(this);
                    int valueReg = lastResultReg;

                    // Allocate register for reference
                    int rd = allocateRegister();

                    // Emit CREATE_REF
                    emit(Opcodes.CREATE_REF);
                    emitReg(rd);
                    emitReg(valueReg);

                    lastResultReg = rd;
                } finally {
                    currentCallContext = savedContext;
                }
            } else {
                throwCompilerException("Reference operator requires operand");
            }
        }
    }

    @Override
    public void visit(OperatorNode node) {
        CompileOperator.visitOperator(this, node);
    }

    // =========================================================================
    // HELPER METHODS
    // =========================================================================

    int allocateRegister() {
        int reg = nextRegister++;
        if (reg > 65535) {
            throwCompilerException("Too many registers: exceeded 65535 register limit. " +
                    "Consider breaking this code into smaller subroutines.");
        }
        // Track the highest register ever used for array sizing
        if (reg > maxRegisterEverUsed) {
            maxRegisterEverUsed = reg;
        }
        return reg;
    }

    /**
     * Get the highest register index currently used by variables (not temporaries).
     * This is used to determine the reset point for register recycling.
     */
    private int getHighestVariableRegister() {
        int maxReg = 2;  // Start with reserved registers (0=this, 1=@_, 2=wantarray)

        // Check all variable scopes
        for (Map<String, Integer> scope : variableScopes) {
            for (Integer reg : scope.values()) {
                if (reg > maxReg) {
                    maxReg = reg;
                }
            }
        }

        // Also check captured variables
        if (capturedVarIndices != null) {
            for (Integer reg : capturedVarIndices.values()) {
                if (reg > maxReg) {
                    maxReg = reg;
                }
            }
        }

        return maxReg;
    }

    /**
     * Reset temporary registers after a statement completes.
     * This allows register reuse for the next statement, preventing register exhaustion
     * in large scripts.
     *
     * IMPORTANT: Only resets registers that are truly temporary. Preserves:
     * - Reserved registers (0-2)
     * - All variables in all scopes
     * - Captured variables (closures)
     * - Registers protected by enterScope() (baseRegisterForStatement)
     *
     * NOTE: This assumes that by the end of a statement, all intermediate values
     * have either been stored in variables or used/discarded. Any value that needs
     * to persist must be in a variable, not just a temporary register.
     */
    private void recycleTemporaryRegisters() {
        // Find highest variable register and reset nextRegister to one past it
        int highestVarReg = getHighestVariableRegister() + 1;

        // CRITICAL: Never lower baseRegisterForStatement below what enterScope() set.
        // This protects registers like foreach iterators that must survive across loop iterations.
        // Use Math.max to preserve the higher value set by enterScope()
        baseRegisterForStatement = Math.max(baseRegisterForStatement, highestVarReg);
        nextRegister = baseRegisterForStatement;

        // DO NOT reset lastResultReg - BlockNode needs it to return the last statement's result
    }

    int addToStringPool(String str) {
        // Use HashMap for O(1) lookup instead of O(n) ArrayList.indexOf()
        Integer cached = stringPoolIndex.get(str);
        if (cached != null) {
            return cached;
        }
        int index = stringPool.size();
        stringPool.add(str);
        stringPoolIndex.put(str, index);
        return index;
    }

    private int addToConstantPool(Object obj) {
        // Use HashMap for O(1) lookup instead of O(n) ArrayList.indexOf()
        Integer cached = constantPoolIndex.get(obj);
        if (cached != null) {
            return cached;
        }
        int index = constants.size();
        constants.add(obj);
        constantPoolIndex.put(obj, index);
        return index;
    }

    void emit(short opcode) {
        bytecode.add((int) opcode);
    }

    /**
     * Emit opcode and track tokenIndex for error reporting.
     * Use this for opcodes that may throw exceptions (DIE, method calls, etc.)
     */
    void emitWithToken(short opcode, int tokenIndex) {
        int pc = bytecode.size();
        pcToTokenIndex.put(pc, tokenIndex);
        bytecode.add((int) opcode);
    }

    void emit(int value) {
        bytecode.add(value);
    }

    void emitInt(int value) {
        bytecode.add(value);  // Full int in one slot
    }

    /**
     * Emit a short value (register index, small immediate, etc.).
     */
    private void emitShort(int value) {
        bytecode.add(value);
    }

    /**
     * Emit a register index as a short value.
     * Registers are now 16-bit (0-65535) instead of 8-bit (0-255).
     */
    void emitReg(int register) {
        bytecode.add(register);
    }

    /**
     * Patch a 2-short (4-byte) int offset at the specified position.
     * Used for forward jumps where the target is unknown at emit time.
     */
    void patchIntOffset(int position, int target) {
        // Store absolute target address in one slot
        bytecode.set(position, target);
    }

    /**
     * Helper for forward jumps - emit placeholder and return position for later patching.
     */
    private void emitJumpPlaceholder() {
        emitInt(0);  // 1 int slot placeholder
    }

    private void patchJump(int placeholderPos, int target) {
        patchIntOffset(placeholderPos, target);
    }

    /**
     * Patch a short offset at the specified position.
     * Used for forward jumps where the target is unknown at emit time.
     */
    private void patchShortOffset(int position, int target) {
        bytecode.set(position, target);
    }

    /**
     * Convert List<Integer> bytecode to int[] array.
     */
    private int[] toShortArray() {
        int[] result = new int[bytecode.size()];
        for (int i = 0; i < bytecode.size(); i++) {
            result[i] = bytecode.get(i);
        }
        return result;
    }

    // =========================================================================
    // UNIMPLEMENTED VISITOR METHODS (TODO)
    // =========================================================================

    @Override
    public void visit(ArrayLiteralNode node) {
        // Array literal: [expr1, expr2, ...]
        // In Perl, [..] creates an ARRAY REFERENCE (RuntimeScalar containing RuntimeArray)
        // Implementation:
        //   1. Create a list with all elements
        //   2. Convert list to array reference using CREATE_ARRAY (which now returns reference)

        // Fast path: empty array
        if (node.elements.isEmpty()) {
            // Create empty RuntimeList
            int listReg = allocateRegister();
            emit(Opcodes.CREATE_LIST);
            emitReg(listReg);
            emit(0); // count = 0

            // Convert to RuntimeArray reference (CREATE_ARRAY now returns reference!)
            int refReg = allocateRegister();
            emit(Opcodes.CREATE_ARRAY);
            emitReg(refReg);
            emitReg(listReg);

            lastResultReg = refReg;
            return;
        }

        // General case: evaluate all elements
        int[] elementRegs = new int[node.elements.size()];
        for (int i = 0; i < node.elements.size(); i++) {
            node.elements.get(i).accept(this);
            elementRegs[i] = lastResultReg;
        }

        // Create RuntimeList with all elements
        int listReg = allocateRegister();
        emit(Opcodes.CREATE_LIST);
        emitReg(listReg);
        emit(node.elements.size()); // count

        // Emit register numbers for each element
        for (int elemReg : elementRegs) {
            emitReg(elemReg);
        }

        // Convert list to array reference (CREATE_ARRAY now returns reference!)
        int refReg = allocateRegister();
        emit(Opcodes.CREATE_ARRAY);
        emitReg(refReg);
        emitReg(listReg);

        lastResultReg = refReg;
    }

    @Override
    public void visit(HashLiteralNode node) {
        // Hash literal: {key1 => value1, key2 => value2, ...}
        // Can also contain array expansion: {a => 1, @x}
        // In Perl, {...} creates a HASH REFERENCE (RuntimeScalar containing RuntimeHash)
        //
        // Implementation:
        //   1. Create a RuntimeList with all elements (including arrays)
        //   2. Call CREATE_HASH which flattens arrays and creates hash reference

        // Fast path: empty hash
        if (node.elements.isEmpty()) {
            int listReg = allocateRegister();
            emit(Opcodes.CREATE_LIST);
            emitReg(listReg);
            emit(0); // count = 0

            // Create hash reference (CREATE_HASH now returns reference!)
            int refReg = allocateRegister();
            emit(Opcodes.CREATE_HASH);
            emitReg(refReg);
            emitReg(listReg);

            lastResultReg = refReg;
            return;
        }

        // General case: evaluate all elements
        int[] elementRegs = new int[node.elements.size()];
        for (int i = 0; i < node.elements.size(); i++) {
            node.elements.get(i).accept(this);
            elementRegs[i] = lastResultReg;
        }

        // Create RuntimeList with all elements
        // Arrays will be included as-is; RuntimeHash.createHash() will flatten them
        int listReg = allocateRegister();
        emit(Opcodes.CREATE_LIST);
        emitReg(listReg);
        emit(node.elements.size()); // count

        // Emit register numbers for each element
        for (int elemReg : elementRegs) {
            emitReg(elemReg);
        }

        // Create hash reference (CREATE_HASH now returns reference!)
        int refReg = allocateRegister();
        emit(Opcodes.CREATE_HASH);
        emitReg(refReg);
        emitReg(listReg);

        lastResultReg = refReg;
    }

    @Override
    public void visit(SubroutineNode node) {
        if (node.useTryCatch) {
            // This is an eval block: eval { ... }
            visitEvalBlock(node);
        } else if (node.name == null || node.name.equals("<anon>")) {
            // Anonymous subroutine: sub { ... }
            visitAnonymousSubroutine(node);
        } else {
            // Named subroutine: sub foo { ... }
            // NOTE: Named subs are compiled by the parser, not here.
            // They use the JVM compiler which has full closure support.
            // This is fine because compiled and interpreted code share the same RuntimeCode API.
            visitNamedSubroutine(node);
        }
    }

    /**
     * Visit a named subroutine: sub foo { ... }
     *
     * NOTE: In practice, named subroutines are compiled by the parser using the JVM compiler,
     * not the interpreter. This method exists for completeness but may not be called for
     * typical named sub definitions. The parser creates compiled RuntimeCode objects that
     * interoperate seamlessly with interpreted code via the shared RuntimeCode.apply() API.
     */
    private void visitNamedSubroutine(SubroutineNode node) {
        // Step 1: Collect closure variables.
        //
        // IMPORTANT: For named subs defined in eval STRING, the body may contain nested
        // eval STRING that references outer lexicals that are NOT referenced directly
        // in the AST (because they're inside a string). Perl still expects those outer
        // lexicals to be visible from inside the sub.
        //
        // Therefore capture all visible Perl variables (scalars/arrays/hashes) from the
        // current scope, not just variables referenced directly in the sub AST.
        TreeMap<Integer, String> closureVarsByReg = new TreeMap<>();
        for (Map<String, Integer> scope : variableScopes) {
            for (Map.Entry<String, Integer> e : scope.entrySet()) {
                String varName = e.getKey();
                Integer reg = e.getValue();
                if (reg == null || reg < 3) {
                    continue;
                }
                if (varName == null || varName.isEmpty()) {
                    continue;
                }
                char sigil = varName.charAt(0);
                if (sigil != '$' && sigil != '@' && sigil != '%') {
                    continue;
                }
                closureVarsByReg.put(reg, varName);
            }
        }

        List<String> closureVarNames = new ArrayList<>(closureVarsByReg.values());
        List<Integer> closureVarIndices = new ArrayList<>(closureVarsByReg.keySet());

        // If there are closure variables, we need to store them in PersistentVariable globals
        // so the named sub can retrieve them using RETRIEVE_BEGIN opcodes
        int beginId = 0;
        if (!closureVarIndices.isEmpty()) {
            // Assign a unique BEGIN ID for this subroutine
            beginId = EmitterMethodCreator.classCounter++;

            // Store each closure variable in PersistentVariable globals
            for (int i = 0; i < closureVarNames.size(); i++) {
                String varName = closureVarNames.get(i);
                int varReg = closureVarIndices.get(i);

                // Get the variable type from the sigil
                String sigil = varName.substring(0, 1);
                String bareVarName = varName.substring(1);
                String beginVarName = PersistentVariable.beginPackage(beginId) + "::" + bareVarName;

                // Store the variable value in PersistentVariable global
                int nameIdx = addToStringPool(beginVarName);
                switch (sigil) {
                    case "$" -> {
                        emit(Opcodes.STORE_GLOBAL_SCALAR);
                        emit(nameIdx);
                        emitReg(varReg);
                    }
                    case "@" -> {
                        emit(Opcodes.STORE_GLOBAL_ARRAY);
                        emit(nameIdx);
                        emitReg(varReg);
                    }
                    case "%" -> {
                        emit(Opcodes.STORE_GLOBAL_HASH);
                        emit(nameIdx);
                        emitReg(varReg);
                    }
                }
            }
        }

        // Step 3: Compile the subroutine body with a packed registry for captured variables.
        // The closure created at runtime packs capturedVars sequentially into registers 3..,
        // so the compiled sub body must use the same packed register layout.
        Map<String, Integer> packedRegistry = new HashMap<>();
        packedRegistry.put("this", 0);
        packedRegistry.put("@_", 1);
        packedRegistry.put("wantarray", 2);
        for (int i = 0; i < closureVarNames.size(); i++) {
            packedRegistry.put(closureVarNames.get(i), 3 + i);
        }

        BytecodeCompiler subCompiler = new BytecodeCompiler(
            this.sourceName,
            node.getIndex(),
            this.errorUtil,
            packedRegistry
        );

        // Set the BEGIN ID in the sub-compiler so it knows to use RETRIEVE_BEGIN opcodes
        subCompiler.currentSubroutineBeginId = beginId;
        subCompiler.currentSubroutineClosureVars = new HashSet<>(closureVarNames);

        // Step 4: Compile the subroutine body
        // Sub-compiler will use RETRIEVE_BEGIN opcodes for closure variables
        InterpretedCode subCode = subCompiler.compile(node.block);

        // Step 5: Emit bytecode to create closure or simple code ref
        int codeReg = allocateRegister();

        if (closureVarIndices.isEmpty()) {
            RuntimeScalar codeScalar = new RuntimeScalar((RuntimeCode) subCode);
            int constIdx = addToConstantPool(codeScalar);
            emit(Opcodes.LOAD_CONST);
            emitReg(codeReg);
            emit(constIdx);
        } else {
            // Create a closure capturing the current register values.
            int templateIdx = addToConstantPool(subCode);
            emit(Opcodes.CREATE_CLOSURE);
            emitReg(codeReg);
            emit(templateIdx);
            emit(closureVarIndices.size());
            for (int regIdx : closureVarIndices) {
                emit(regIdx);
            }
        }

        // Step 6: Store in global namespace
        String fullName = node.name;
        if (!fullName.contains("::")) {
            fullName = getCurrentPackage() + "::" + fullName;  // Use getCurrentPackage() for proper package tracking
        }

        int nameIdx = addToStringPool(fullName);
        emit(Opcodes.STORE_GLOBAL_CODE);
        emit(nameIdx);
        emitReg(codeReg);

        lastResultReg = -1;
    }

    /**
     * Visit an anonymous subroutine: sub { ... }
     *
     * Compiles the subroutine body to bytecode and creates an InterpretedCode instance.
     * Handles closure variable capture if needed.
     *
     * The result is an InterpretedCode wrapped in RuntimeScalar, stored in lastResultReg.
     */
    /**
     * Visit an anonymous subroutine: sub { ... }
     *
     * Compiles the subroutine body to bytecode with closure support.
     * Anonymous subs capture lexical variables from the enclosing scope.
     */
    private void visitAnonymousSubroutine(SubroutineNode node) {
        // Step 1: Collect closure variables.
        //
        // IMPORTANT: Anonymous subs can contain nested eval STRING that references outer
        // lexicals only inside strings (so they won't appear as IdentifierNodes in the AST).
        // Perl still expects those lexicals to be visible to eval STRING at runtime.
        // Capture all visible Perl variables (scalars/arrays/hashes) from the current scope.
        TreeMap<Integer, String> closureVarsByReg = new TreeMap<>();
        for (Map<String, Integer> scope : variableScopes) {
            for (Map.Entry<String, Integer> e : scope.entrySet()) {
                String varName = e.getKey();
                Integer reg = e.getValue();
                if (reg == null || reg < 3) {
                    continue;
                }
                if (varName == null || varName.isEmpty()) {
                    continue;
                }
                char sigil = varName.charAt(0);
                if (sigil != '$' && sigil != '@' && sigil != '%') {
                    continue;
                }
                closureVarsByReg.put(reg, varName);
            }
        }

        List<String> closureVarNames = new ArrayList<>(closureVarsByReg.values());
        List<Integer> closureVarIndices = new ArrayList<>(closureVarsByReg.keySet());

        // Step 3: Create a new BytecodeCompiler for the subroutine body
        // Build a variable registry from current scope to pass to sub-compiler
        // This allows nested closures to see grandparent scope variables
        Map<String, Integer> parentRegistry = new HashMap<>();
        parentRegistry.put("this", 0);
        parentRegistry.put("@_", 1);
        parentRegistry.put("wantarray", 2);

        // Add captured variables with adjusted indices (starting at 3)
        for (int i = 0; i < closureVarNames.size(); i++) {
            parentRegistry.put(closureVarNames.get(i), 3 + i);
        }

        BytecodeCompiler subCompiler = new BytecodeCompiler(
            this.sourceName,
            node.getIndex(),
            this.errorUtil,
            parentRegistry  // Pass parent variable registry for nested closure support
        );

        // Step 4: Compile the subroutine body
        // Sub-compiler will use parentRegistry to resolve captured variables
        InterpretedCode subCode = subCompiler.compile(node.block);

        // Step 5: Create closure or simple code ref
        int codeReg = allocateRegister();

        if (closureVarIndices.isEmpty()) {
            // No closures - just wrap the InterpretedCode
            RuntimeScalar codeScalar = new RuntimeScalar((RuntimeCode) subCode);
            int constIdx = addToConstantPool(codeScalar);
            emit(Opcodes.LOAD_CONST);
            emitReg(codeReg);
            emit(constIdx);
        } else {
            // Has closures - emit CREATE_CLOSURE
            int templateIdx = addToConstantPool(subCode);
            emit(Opcodes.CREATE_CLOSURE);
            emitReg(codeReg);
            emit(templateIdx);
            emit(closureVarIndices.size());
            for (int regIdx : closureVarIndices) {
                emit(regIdx);
            }
        }

        lastResultReg = codeReg;
    }

    /**
     * Visit an eval block: eval { ... }
     *
     * Generates:
     *   EVAL_TRY catch_offset    # Set up exception handler, clear $@
     *   ... block bytecode ...
     *   EVAL_END                 # Clear $@ on success
     *   GOTO end
     *   LABEL catch:
     *   EVAL_CATCH rd            # Set $@, store undef in rd
     *   LABEL end:
     *
     * The result is stored in lastResultReg.
     */
    private void visitEvalBlock(SubroutineNode node) {
        int resultReg = allocateRegister();

        // Emit EVAL_TRY with placeholder for catch target (absolute address)
        emitWithToken(Opcodes.EVAL_TRY, node.getIndex());
        int catchTargetPos = bytecode.size();
        emitInt(0); // Placeholder for absolute catch address (4 bytes)

        // Compile the eval block body
        node.block.accept(this);

        // Store result from block
        if (lastResultReg >= 0) {
            emit(Opcodes.MOVE);
            emitReg(resultReg);
            emitReg(lastResultReg);
        }

        // Emit EVAL_END (clears $@)
        emit(Opcodes.EVAL_END);

        // Jump over catch block to end
        emit(Opcodes.GOTO);
        int gotoEndPos = bytecode.size();
        emitInt(0); // Placeholder for absolute end address (4 bytes)

        // CATCH block starts here
        int catchPc = bytecode.size();

        // Patch EVAL_TRY with absolute catch target (4 bytes)
        patchIntOffset(catchTargetPos, catchPc);

        // Emit EVAL_CATCH (sets $@, stores undef)
        emit(Opcodes.EVAL_CATCH);
        emitReg(resultReg);

        // END label (after catch)
        int endPc = bytecode.size();

        // Patch GOTO with absolute end target (4 bytes)
        patchIntOffset(gotoEndPos, endPc);

        lastResultReg = resultReg;
    }

    /**
     * Compiles a foreach-style loop ({@code for my $var (@list) { body }}).
     *
     * <p>Uses a <em>do-while</em> bytecode layout to eliminate the back-edge
     * {@code GOTO} that would otherwise execute on every iteration:
     * <pre>
     *   GOTO loopCheck          // one-time entry jump
     * body:
     *   &lt;body&gt;
     * loopCheck:               // next/continue target
     *   FOREACH_NEXT_OR_EXIT -&gt; body   // jump back if has next; fall through if exhausted
     * exit:
     * </pre>
     *
     * <p>For global loop variables (e.g. implicit {@code $_}, {@code needsArrayOfAlias=true}):
     * <ul>
     *   <li>{@code LOCAL_SCALAR_SAVE_LEVEL} atomically saves {@code getLocalLevel()} into
     *       {@code levelReg} <em>before</em> calling {@code makeLocal}, so the pre-push
     *       level is available for restore.</li>
     *   <li>{@code FOREACH_GLOBAL_NEXT_OR_EXIT} combines hasNext + next +
     *       {@code aliasGlobalVariable} + conditional jump per iteration.</li>
     *   <li>{@code POP_LOCAL_LEVEL(levelReg)} after loop exit restores {@code $_} to
     *       the pre-{@code makeLocal} state, correct for any nesting depth.</li>
     * </ul>
     */
    @Override
    public void visit(For1Node node) {
        // For1Node: foreach-style loop
        // for my $var (@list) { body }
        //
        // For global loop variables (needsArrayOfAlias=true, e.g. implicit $_):
        //   The parser wraps this as BlockNode([local $_, For1Node]).
        //   visit(BlockNode) detects this pattern and skips the 'local $_' child directly,
        //   so For1Node emits LOCAL_SCALAR_SAVE_LEVEL here (saves pre-push level atomically),
        //   uses FOREACH_GLOBAL_NEXT_OR_EXIT per iteration (hasNext+next+alias),
        //   and POP_LOCAL_LEVEL after the loop (restores $_ correctly for nested loops).

        // Determine if this is a global loop variable (e.g. $_).
        String globalLoopVarName = null;
        if (node.needsArrayOfAlias && node.variable instanceof OperatorNode varOp
                && varOp.operator.equals("$") && varOp.operand instanceof IdentifierNode idNode) {
            globalLoopVarName = NameNormalizer.normalizeVariableName(idNode.name, getCurrentPackage());
        }

        // Step 1: Evaluate list in list context
        node.list.accept(this);
        int listReg = lastResultReg;

        // Step 2: Create iterator from the list
        int iterReg = allocateRegister();
        emit(Opcodes.ITERATOR_CREATE);
        emitReg(iterReg);
        emitReg(listReg);

        // Step 3: Allocate loop variable register BEFORE entering scope
        // This ensures both iterReg and varReg are protected from recycling
        int varReg = allocateRegister();

        // Step 3b: For global loop variable: emit LOCAL_SCALAR_SAVE_LEVEL.
        // This atomically saves getLocalLevel() into levelReg (pre-push), then calls makeLocal.
        // POP_LOCAL_LEVEL(levelReg) after the loop correctly restores $_ for any nesting depth.
        int levelReg = -1;
        if (globalLoopVarName != null) {
            levelReg = allocateRegister();
            int nameIdx = addToStringPool(globalLoopVarName);
            emit(Opcodes.LOCAL_SCALAR_SAVE_LEVEL);
            emitReg(varReg);      // rd: receives makeLocal result (the new localized container)
            emitReg(levelReg);    // levelReg: receives pre-push dynamic level
            emit(nameIdx);
        }

        // Step 4: Enter new scope for loop variable
        enterScope();

        // Step 5: If we have a named lexical loop variable, add it to the scope now
        if (node.variable != null && node.variable instanceof OperatorNode) {
            OperatorNode varOp = (OperatorNode) node.variable;
            if (varOp.operator.equals("my") && varOp.operand instanceof OperatorNode) {
                OperatorNode sigilOp = (OperatorNode) varOp.operand;
                if (sigilOp.operator.equals("$") && sigilOp.operand instanceof IdentifierNode) {
                    String varName = "$" + ((IdentifierNode) sigilOp.operand).name;
                    variableScopes.peek().put(varName, varReg);
                    allDeclaredVariables.put(varName, varReg);
                }
            }
        }

        // Step 6: Emit initial GOTO to the loop check (do-while structure).
        // This avoids a back-edge GOTO on every iteration: the superinstruction at
        // the bottom jumps backward to the body start if the iterator has more elements.
        // Layout: GOTO check | body | check: FOREACH_NEXT_OR_EXIT → body | exit
        emit(Opcodes.GOTO);
        int entryJumpPc = bytecode.size();
        emitInt(0);   // placeholder: will be patched to loopCheckPc

        // Step 7: Body start (redo jumps here)
        int bodyStartPc = bytecode.size();
        LoopInfo loopInfo = new LoopInfo(node.labelName, bodyStartPc, true);
        loopStack.push(loopInfo);

        // Step 8: Execute body
        if (node.body != null) {
            node.body.accept(this);
        }

        // Step 9: Loop check (next/continue jumps here) - the superinstruction
        int loopCheckPc = bytecode.size();
        loopInfo.continuePc = loopCheckPc;
        patchJump(entryJumpPc, loopCheckPc);   // patch the entry GOTO

        // Step 10: Emit the loop superinstruction at the bottom (do-while check).
        // If iterator has next: load element (and alias for global vars), jump back to body.
        // If exhausted: fall through to exit.
        int loopEndJumpPc;
        if (globalLoopVarName != null) {
            // FOREACH_GLOBAL_NEXT_OR_EXIT: hasNext + next + aliasGlobalVariable + conditional jump
            int nameIdx = addToStringPool(globalLoopVarName);
            emit(Opcodes.FOREACH_GLOBAL_NEXT_OR_EXIT);
            emitReg(varReg);
            emitReg(iterReg);
            emit(nameIdx);
            loopEndJumpPc = bytecode.size();
            emitInt(bodyStartPc);   // jump backward to body start if has next
        } else {
            // FOREACH_NEXT_OR_EXIT: hasNext + next + conditional jump (lexical or temp var)
            emit(Opcodes.FOREACH_NEXT_OR_EXIT);
            emitReg(varReg);
            emitReg(iterReg);
            loopEndJumpPc = bytecode.size();
            emitInt(bodyStartPc);   // jump backward to body start if has next
        }

        // Step 11: Loop exit - fall-through after the superinstruction
        int loopEndPc = bytecode.size();

        // Step 11b: Restore global loop variable after loop exits.
        // POP_LOCAL_LEVEL(levelReg) pops to the pre-makeLocal level, undoing both
        // the makeLocal push and all aliasGlobalVariable replacements. Correct for
        // any nesting depth because levelReg holds the exact pre-push level.
        if (levelReg >= 0) {
            emit(Opcodes.POP_LOCAL_LEVEL);
            emitReg(levelReg);
        }

        // Step 12: Patch all last/next/redo jumps
        for (int pc : loopInfo.breakPcs) {
            patchJump(pc, loopEndPc);
        }
        for (int pc : loopInfo.nextPcs) {
            patchJump(pc, loopCheckPc);
        }
        for (int pc : loopInfo.redoPcs) {
            patchJump(pc, bodyStartPc);
        }

        // Step 13: Pop loop info and exit scope
        loopStack.pop();
        exitScope();

        lastResultReg = -1;  // For loop returns empty
    }

    @Override
    public void visit(For3Node node) {
        // For3Node: C-style for loop, while loop, do-while loop, or bare block
        // for (init; condition; increment) { body }
        // while (condition) { body }
        // do { body } while (condition);
        // { body }  (bare block - isSimpleBlock=true)

        // Handle bare blocks (simple blocks) differently - they execute once, not loop
        if (node.isSimpleBlock) {
            // Simple bare block: { statements; }
            // Allocate a result register before entering scope when in non-VOID context,
            // so the value is accessible after the scope exits (same pattern as BlockNode).
            int outerResultReg = -1;
            if (currentCallContext != RuntimeContextType.VOID) {
                outerResultReg = allocateRegister();
            }
            enterScope();
            try {
                // Just execute the body once, no loop
                if (node.body != null) {
                    node.body.accept(this);
                }
                // Save last statement result into outer register before exiting scope
                if (outerResultReg >= 0 && lastResultReg >= 0) {
                    emit(Opcodes.MOVE);
                    emitReg(outerResultReg);
                    emitReg(lastResultReg);
                }
            } finally {
                // Exit scope to clean up lexical variables
                exitScope();
            }
            lastResultReg = outerResultReg;
            return;
        }

        // Step 1: Execute initialization (for C-style loops only)
        if (node.initialization != null) {
            node.initialization.accept(this);
        }

        // Step 2: Push loop info onto stack for last/next/redo
        int loopStartPc = bytecode.size();
        // do-while is NOT a true loop (can't use last/next/redo); while/for are true loops
        LoopInfo loopInfo = new LoopInfo(node.labelName, loopStartPc, !node.isDoWhile);
        loopStack.push(loopInfo);

        int loopEndJumpPc = -1;

        if (node.isDoWhile) {
            // do-while loop: body executes at least once, condition checked at end
            // Step 3: Execute body (redo jumps here)
            if (node.body != null) {
                node.body.accept(this);
            }

            // Step 4: Continue point (next jumps here)
            loopInfo.continuePc = bytecode.size();

            // Step 5: Execute continue block if present
            if (node.continueBlock != null) {
                node.continueBlock.accept(this);
            }

            // Step 6: Execute increment (for C-style for loops)
            if (node.increment != null) {
                node.increment.accept(this);
            }

            // Step 7: Check condition
            int condReg = allocateRegister();
            if (node.condition != null) {
                // Evaluate condition in SCALAR context (need boolean result)
                int savedContext = currentCallContext;
                currentCallContext = RuntimeContextType.SCALAR;
                node.condition.accept(this);
                currentCallContext = savedContext;
                condReg = lastResultReg;
            } else {
                // No condition means infinite loop - load true
                emit(Opcodes.LOAD_INT);
                emitReg(condReg);
                emitInt(1);
            }

            // Step 8: If condition is true, jump back to start
            emit(Opcodes.GOTO_IF_TRUE);
            emitReg(condReg);
            emitInt(loopStartPc);

        } else {
            // while/for loop: condition checked before body
            // Step 3: Check condition (redo jumps here)
            int condReg = allocateRegister();
            if (node.condition != null) {
                // Evaluate condition in SCALAR context (need boolean result)
                int savedContext = currentCallContext;
                currentCallContext = RuntimeContextType.SCALAR;
                node.condition.accept(this);
                currentCallContext = savedContext;
                condReg = lastResultReg;
            } else {
                // No condition means infinite loop - load true
                emit(Opcodes.LOAD_INT);
                emitReg(condReg);
                emitInt(1);
            }

            // Step 4: If condition is false, jump to end
            emit(Opcodes.GOTO_IF_FALSE);
            emitReg(condReg);
            loopEndJumpPc = bytecode.size();
            emitInt(0);  // Placeholder for jump target (will be patched)

            // Step 5: Execute body
            if (node.body != null) {
                node.body.accept(this);
            }

            // Step 6: Continue point (next jumps here)
            loopInfo.continuePc = bytecode.size();

            // Step 7: Execute continue block if present
            if (node.continueBlock != null) {
                node.continueBlock.accept(this);
            }

            // Step 8: Execute increment (for C-style for loops)
            if (node.increment != null) {
                node.increment.accept(this);
            }

            // Step 9: Jump back to loop start
            emit(Opcodes.GOTO);
            emitInt(loopStartPc);
        }

        // Step 10: Loop end - patch the forward jump (last jumps here)
        int loopEndPc = bytecode.size();
        if (loopEndJumpPc != -1) {
            patchJump(loopEndJumpPc, loopEndPc);
        }

        // Step 11: Patch all last/next/redo jumps
        for (int pc : loopInfo.breakPcs) {
            patchJump(pc, loopEndPc);
        }
        for (int pc : loopInfo.nextPcs) {
            patchJump(pc, loopInfo.continuePc);
        }
        for (int pc : loopInfo.redoPcs) {
            patchJump(pc, loopStartPc);
        }

        // Step 12: Pop loop info
        loopStack.pop();

        lastResultReg = -1;  // For loop returns empty
    }

    @Override
    public void visit(IfNode node) {
        // Compile condition in SCALAR context (need boolean value)
        int savedContext = currentCallContext;
        currentCallContext = RuntimeContextType.SCALAR;
        node.condition.accept(this);
        currentCallContext = savedContext;
        int condReg = lastResultReg;

        // Mark position for forward jump to else/end
        int ifFalsePos = bytecode.size();
        // Invert condition for 'unless'
        if ("unless".equals(node.operator)) {
            emit(Opcodes.GOTO_IF_TRUE);
        } else {
            emit(Opcodes.GOTO_IF_FALSE);
        }
        emitReg(condReg);
        emitInt(0); // Placeholder for else/end target

        // Compile then block
        if (node.thenBranch != null) {
            node.thenBranch.accept(this);
        }
        int thenResultReg = lastResultReg;

        if (node.elseBranch != null) {
            // Need to jump over else block after then block executes
            int gotoEndPos = bytecode.size();
            emit(Opcodes.GOTO);
            emitInt(0); // Placeholder for end target

            // Patch if-false jump to here (start of else block)
            int elseStart = bytecode.size();
            patchIntOffset(ifFalsePos + 2, elseStart);

            // Compile else block
            node.elseBranch.accept(this);
            int elseResultReg = lastResultReg;

            // Both branches should produce results in the same register
            // If they differ, move else result to then result register
            if (thenResultReg >= 0 && elseResultReg >= 0 && thenResultReg != elseResultReg) {
                emit(Opcodes.MOVE);
                emitReg(thenResultReg);
                emitReg(elseResultReg);
            }

            // Patch goto-end jump to here
            int endPos = bytecode.size();
            patchIntOffset(gotoEndPos + 1, endPos);

            lastResultReg = thenResultReg >= 0 ? thenResultReg : elseResultReg;
        } else {
            // No else block - patch if-false jump to here (after then block)
            int endPos = bytecode.size();
            patchIntOffset(ifFalsePos + 2, endPos);

            lastResultReg = thenResultReg;
        }
    }

    @Override
    public void visit(TernaryOperatorNode node) {
        // condition ? true_expr : false_expr
        // Implementation:
        //   eval condition
        //   if (!condition) goto false_label
        //   rd = true_expr
        //   goto end_label
        //   false_label:
        //   rd = false_expr
        //   end_label:

        // Compile condition in scalar context (need boolean value)
        int savedContext = currentCallContext;
        currentCallContext = RuntimeContextType.SCALAR;
        node.condition.accept(this);
        int condReg = lastResultReg;
        currentCallContext = savedContext;

        // Allocate result register
        int rd = allocateRegister();

        // Mark position for forward jump to false expression
        int ifFalsePos = bytecode.size();
        emit(Opcodes.GOTO_IF_FALSE);
        emitReg(condReg);
        emitInt(0); // Placeholder for false_label

        // Compile true expression
        node.trueExpr.accept(this);
        int trueReg = lastResultReg;

        // Move true result to rd
        emit(Opcodes.MOVE);
        emitReg(rd);
        emitReg(trueReg);

        // Jump over false expression
        int gotoEndPos = bytecode.size();
        emit(Opcodes.GOTO);
        emitInt(0); // Placeholder for end_label

        // Patch if-false jump to here (start of false expression)
        int falseStart = bytecode.size();
        patchIntOffset(ifFalsePos + 2, falseStart);

        // Compile false expression
        node.falseExpr.accept(this);
        int falseReg = lastResultReg;

        // Move false result to rd
        emit(Opcodes.MOVE);
        emitReg(rd);
        emitReg(falseReg);

        // Patch goto-end jump to here
        int endPos = bytecode.size();
        patchIntOffset(gotoEndPos + 1, endPos);

        lastResultReg = rd;
    }

    @Override
    public void visit(TryNode node) {
        throw new UnsupportedOperationException("Try/catch not yet implemented");
    }

    @Override
    public void visit(LabelNode node) {
        // Labels are tracked in loops, standalone labels are no-ops
        lastResultReg = -1;
    }

    @Override
    public void visit(CompilerFlagNode node) {
        // Process compiler flags - they modify the symbolTable's pragma stacks
        // This is critical for handling `use strict`, `no strict`, etc. during compilation
        if (emitterContext != null && emitterContext.symbolTable != null) {
            ScopedSymbolTable symbolTable = emitterContext.symbolTable;

            // Pop and push new flags - this updates the current scope's pragmas
            symbolTable.warningFlagsStack.pop();
            symbolTable.warningFlagsStack.push((java.util.BitSet) node.getWarningFlags().clone());

            symbolTable.featureFlagsStack.pop();
            symbolTable.featureFlagsStack.push(node.getFeatureFlags());

            symbolTable.strictOptionsStack.pop();
            symbolTable.strictOptionsStack.push(node.getStrictOptions());
        }

        lastResultReg = -1;
    }

    @Override
    public void visit(FormatNode node) {
        throw new UnsupportedOperationException("Formats not yet implemented");
    }

    @Override
    public void visit(ListNode node) {
        // Handle ListNode - represents (expr1, expr2, ...) in Perl

        // Fast path: empty list
        if (node.elements.isEmpty()) {
            // In SCALAR context, return undef; in LIST context, return empty list
            if (currentCallContext == RuntimeContextType.SCALAR) {
                int rd = allocateRegister();
                emit(Opcodes.LOAD_UNDEF);
                emitReg(rd);
                lastResultReg = rd;
            } else {
                int listReg = allocateRegister();
                emit(Opcodes.CREATE_LIST);
                emitReg(listReg);
                emit(0); // count = 0
                lastResultReg = listReg;
            }
            return;
        }

        // In SCALAR context, evaluate all elements except last for side effects
        // and return only the last element's value (like compiled backend does)
        if (currentCallContext == RuntimeContextType.SCALAR) {
            // Evaluate all elements except the last in SCALAR context for side effects
            for (int i = 0; i < node.elements.size() - 1; i++) {
                node.elements.get(i).accept(this);
                // Result is discarded (side effects only)
            }
            // Evaluate and keep the last element
            node.elements.get(node.elements.size() - 1).accept(this);
            // lastResultReg already contains the last element's value
            return;
        }

        // Fast path: single element in LIST context
        // In list context, returns a RuntimeList with one element
        // List elements should be evaluated in LIST context
        if (node.elements.size() == 1) {
            int savedContext = currentCallContext;
            currentCallContext = RuntimeContextType.LIST;
            try {
                node.elements.get(0).accept(this);
                int elemReg = lastResultReg;

                int listReg = allocateRegister();
                emit(Opcodes.CREATE_LIST);
                emitReg(listReg);
                emit(1); // count = 1
                emitReg(elemReg);
                lastResultReg = listReg;
            } finally {
                currentCallContext = savedContext;
            }
            return;
        }

        // General case: multiple elements in LIST context
        // Evaluate each element into a register
        // List elements should be evaluated in LIST context
        int savedContext = currentCallContext;
        currentCallContext = RuntimeContextType.LIST;
        try {
            int[] elementRegs = new int[node.elements.size()];
            for (int i = 0; i < node.elements.size(); i++) {
                node.elements.get(i).accept(this);
                elementRegs[i] = lastResultReg;
            }

            // Create RuntimeList with all elements
            int listReg = allocateRegister();
            emit(Opcodes.CREATE_LIST);
            emitReg(listReg);
            emit(node.elements.size()); // count

            // Emit register numbers for each element
            for (int elemReg : elementRegs) {
                emitReg(elemReg);
            }

            lastResultReg = listReg;
        } finally {
            currentCallContext = savedContext;
        }
    }

    // =================================================================
    // PACKAGE-LEVEL ACCESSORS FOR REFACTORED CLASSES
    // =================================================================

    /**
     * Get the symbol table for package/strict/feature tracking.
     * Used by refactored compiler classes.
     */
    ScopedSymbolTable getSymbolTable() {
        return symbolTable;
    }

    /**
     * Get the source name for error messages.
     * Used by refactored compiler classes.
     */
    String getSourceName() {
        return sourceName;
    }

    /**
     * Get the source line for error messages.
     * Used by refactored compiler classes.
     */
    int getSourceLine() {
        return sourceLine;
    }

    /**
     * Get the bytecode list for position tracking.
     * Used by refactored compiler classes for jump patching.
     */
    List<Integer> getBytecode() {
        return bytecode;
    }

    /**
     * Get the variable scopes stack.
     * Used by refactored compiler classes for variable declaration.
     */
    Stack<Map<String, Integer>> getVariableScopes() {
        return variableScopes;
    }

    /**
     * Get the all declared variables map.
     * Used by refactored compiler classes for variable registry tracking.
     */
    Map<String, Integer> getAllDeclaredVariables() {
        return allDeclaredVariables;
    }

    /**
     * Get the captured variable indices map.
     * Used by refactored compiler classes for closure support.
     */
    Map<String, Integer> getCapturedVarIndices() {
        return capturedVarIndices;
    }


    /**
     * Handle loop control operators: last, next, redo
     * Extracted for use by CompileOperator.
     */
    void handleLoopControlOperator(OperatorNode node, String op) {
        // Extract label if present
        String labelStr = null;
        if (node.operand instanceof ListNode labelNode && !labelNode.elements.isEmpty()) {
            Node arg = labelNode.elements.getFirst();
            if (arg instanceof IdentifierNode) {
                labelStr = ((IdentifierNode) arg).name;
            } else {
                throwCompilerException("Not implemented: " + node, node.getIndex());
            }
        }

        // Find the target loop
        LoopInfo targetLoop = null;
        if (labelStr == null) {
            // Unlabeled: find innermost loop
            if (!loopStack.isEmpty()) {
                targetLoop = loopStack.peek();
            }
        } else {
            // Labeled: search for matching label
            for (int i = loopStack.size() - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
                LoopInfo loop = loopStack.get(i);
                if (labelStr.equals(loop.label)) {
                    targetLoop = loop;
                    break;
                }
            }
        }

        if (targetLoop == null) {
            // No matching loop found - non-local control flow
            // Emit CREATE_LAST/NEXT/REDO + RETURN to propagate via RuntimeControlFlowList
            short createOp = op.equals("last") ? Opcodes.CREATE_LAST
                           : op.equals("next") ? Opcodes.CREATE_NEXT
                           : Opcodes.CREATE_REDO;
            int rd = allocateRegister();
            emit(createOp);
            emitReg(rd);
            int labelIdx = labelStr != null ? addToStringPool(labelStr) : 255;
            emitReg(labelIdx);
            emit(Opcodes.RETURN);
            emitReg(rd);
            return;
        }

        // Check if this is a pseudo-loop (do-while/bare block) which doesn't support last/next/redo
        if (!targetLoop.isTrueLoop) {
            throwCompilerException("Can't \"" + op + "\" outside a loop block", node.getIndex());
        }

        // Emit the opcode and record the PC to be patched later
        short opcode = op.equals("last") ? Opcodes.LAST
                      : op.equals("next") ? Opcodes.NEXT
                      : Opcodes.REDO;

        emitWithToken(opcode, node.getIndex());

        // Record the PC to be patched (it's the PC of the jump offset operand)
        int patchPc = bytecode.size();
        emitInt(0); // Placeholder offset to be patched later

        // Add to the appropriate list in the target loop
        if (op.equals("last")) {
            targetLoop.breakPcs.add(patchPc);
        } else if (op.equals("next")) {
            targetLoop.nextPcs.add(patchPc);
        } else { // redo
            targetLoop.redoPcs.add(patchPc);
        }
    }
}