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<!doctype html>
<html lang="en">
<head>
<meta charset="utf-8">
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<meta name="description" content="">
<meta name="author" content="Vikas Mujumdar">
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<title>Learn To Fly on the FS2020</title>
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<li>
<label id="toc-1" class="tree-toggle nav-header"><i class="fas fa-wind"></i> Science</label>
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<li class="nav-item"><a id="toc-1-1" class="nav-link" href="#anchor-1-1">Principles of Flight</a></li>
<li class="nav-item"><a id="toc-1-2" class="nav-link" href="#anchor-1-2">Airplane Structure</a></li>
<li class="nav-item"><a id="toc-1-3" class="nav-link" href="#anchor-1-3">Motion In Air</a></li>
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<li class="nav-item"><a id="toc-2-3" class="nav-link" href="#anchor-2-3">VOR Simulator</a></li>
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<p>Disclaimer: This is an unofficial website intended for entertainment only and none of the content or instructions are to be used in actual flying.</p>
<p>The Microsoft Flight Simulator logo displayed is an older version now in the public domain but does not imply any endorsement or association with this website by Microsoft in any form or manner.</p>
<p>Created by and © 2021 <a href="http://advantiot.com/" class="text-white" target="_blank">AdvantIoT Training and Consulting Sevices</a>.</p>
<p>Email us on <a href="mailto:support@advantiot.com" class="text-white">support@advantiot.com</a> if you would like to know more.</p>
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<h1>LEARN TO FLY</h1>
<p class="fs-5 text-bold">This interactive primer will help you understand the principles and techniques of flight and the various technical aspects of navigating and flying an airplane. With this knowledge you will be able to understand the nuances of flying airplanes on the Microsoft Flight Simulator 2020.</p>
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Scroll down to start, and keep scrolling... <i class="fas fa-angle-double-down"></i>
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<div class="header">Introduction</div>
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<div class="col-sm-12 d-flex justify-content-center p-4">
Before embarking on a flying journey, real or on a simulator or with model airplanes, it is useful to have a basic understanding of the principles governing flight. This section provides an explanation of the fundamental laws of physics governing the forces acting on an airplane in flight, and what effect these natural laws and forces have on the performance characteristics of airplanes. There are four people to who we owe our power of flight, two scientists and two engineers!
</div>
</div>
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<div class="col-sm-12 col-md-3 text-center">
<h5>Sir Isaac Newton</h5>
<div>Sir Issac Newton was an English physicist and astronomer who formulated the laws of motion, universal gravitation, the theory of relativity, Kepler's laws of planetary motion and many other revolutionary scientific principles.</div>
</div>
<div class="col-sm-12 col-md-3 text-center">
<h5>Daniel Bernoulli</h5>
<div>Daniel Bernoulli was a Swiss mathematician and physicist particularly remembered for his applications of mathematics to mechanics, especially fluid mechanics, and for his pioneering work in probability and statistics.</div>
</div>
<div class="col-sm-12 col-md-6 text-center">
<h5>The Wright Brothers (Wilbur and Orville)</h5>
<div>The Wright brothers were two American aviation pioneers who designed, built and flew the world's first machine-operated airplane, called the Wright Flyer. They invented airplane controls that made fixed-wing powered flight possible. Their breakthrough was the creation of a three-axis control system, which enabled the pilot to steer the airplane effectively and to maintain its equilibrium. This method remains the standard even today on fixed-wing airplane.</div>
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<!-- Panel 2 -->
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<div class="header">Newton's Laws of Motion and Force</div>
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In the 17th century, the famous philosopher and mathematician, Sir Isaac Newton, propounded three basic laws of motion. Almost everything known about motion goes back to his three simple laws. These laws, named after Newton, are as follows:
</div>
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<p class="comic-neue fs-6 fw-bold">
<strong>Newton’s First Law of Inertia</strong> states, in part, that: a body at rest tends to remain at rest, and a body in motion tends to remain moving at the same speed and in the same direction.
</p>
<p>
This simply means that, in nature, nothing starts or stops moving until some outside force causes it to do so. This is referred to as the inertia of an object. An airplane at rest on the ground will remain at rest unless a force strong enough to overcome its inertia is applied. Once it is moving, on the ground or in the air, its inertia keeps it moving, subject to the various other forces acting on it. These forces may speed up its motion, slow it down, or change its direction.
</p>
</div>
<div class="col-sm-12 col-md-4 text-center">
<p class="comic-neue fs-6 fw-bold">
<strong>Newton’s Second Law</strong> implies that: When a body is acted upon by a constant force, its resulting acceleration (rate of increase in speed) is inversely proportional to the mass of the body and is directly proportional to the applied force.
</p>
<p>
This law is about the forces involved in overcoming Newton’s First Law of Inertia. It covers both changes in direction and speed, including starting up from rest (positive acceleration) and coming to a stop (negative acceleration, or deceleration).
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<p class="comic-neue fs-6 fw-bold">
<strong>Newton’s Third Law</strong> states that: Whenever one body exerts a force on another, the second body always exerts on the first, a force that is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.
</p>
<p>
In an airplane, the propeller moves and pushes back the air; consequently, the air pushes the propeller (and thus the airplane) in the opposite direction, forward. In a jet airplane, the engine pushes a blast of hot gases backward; the force of equal and opposite reaction pushes against the engine and forces the airplane forward.
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Note: The explanations here are simplified and explain enough for an enthusiast. For more detailed and scientific explanations and calculations refer to one of the many good books on this subject. My favourite is The Mechanics of Flight by A. C. Kermode.
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<div class="header">Bernoulli's Principle</div>
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<p>
The <strong>Earth's Atmosphere</strong> in which flight is conducted is an envelope of air that surrounds the earth. Air is a mixture of gases and has mass, weight, and indefinite shape. Air, like any other fluid, is able to flow and change its shape when subjected to even minute pressures because of the lack of strong molecular cohesion. For example, it will completely fill any container into which it is placed, expanding or contracting to adjust its shape to the limits of the container.
</p>
<p>
Though air is very light, it has mass and is affected by the attraction of gravity. Therefore, like any other substance, it has weight, and because of its weight, it has force. Since it is a fluid substance, this force is exerted equally in all directions, and its effect on bodies within the air is called <strong>pressure</strong>.
</p>
<p>
A half century after Sir Newton presented his laws, Daniel Bernoulli, a Swiss mathematician, explained how the pressure of a moving fluid (liquid or gas) varies with its speed of motion.
</p>
<p class="comic-neue fs-6 fw-bold">
Specifically, he stated that an increase in the speed of movement or flow of a moving fluid would cause a decrease in the pressure exerted by the fluid and conversely, a decrease in its speed of flow would cause an increase in the pressure exerted. <strong>This is the fundamental principle on which flight is based.</strong>
</p>
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<h4>Airfoil Shape</h4>
<img class="image-fluid w-75" src="img/airfoil_airflow.png" />
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<p>
The cross-section of a wing is shaped like an <strong>Airfoil</strong> as shown above. When this shape moves through the air, the the distance that the airstream needs travel above is greater than what it needs to travel below, and hence it flows at a higher speed above than below. By Bernoulli's Principle, this results in a higher pressure below and a lower pressure below. This difference in pressure translates to a force that pushes the wings and the attached airplane up into the air.
</p>
<p>
These laws and scientific principles were used by the Wright Brothers to build the first ever flying machine that was the genesis of the airplanes we use so widely today. Moving a machine forward, following Newton's Laws of Motion, using the power generated by an engine, was a relatively simpler challenge. The far more complex challenge was to lift a heavier-than-air body up into the air, keep it up, and bring it back gently to the ground.
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</section>
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<div class="header">Movement Around Axes</div>
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<img id="a321-axes" src="img/a321-axes.png" class="w-75" />
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<p>
An airplane in flight can rotate about three axes. Axes can be considered as imaginary lines that pass through the airplane's centre of gravity.
</p>
<ul>
<li><strong>Longitudinal Axis</strong>: The axis that extends lengthwise through the fuselage from the nose to the tail. The movement around this axis is referred to as the <strong>Roll</strong>.</li>
<li><strong>Lateral Axis</strong>: The axis that extends crosswise from wingtip to wingtip. The movement around this axis is referred to as the <strong>Pitch</strong>.</li>
<li><strong>Vertical Axis</strong>: The axis that passes vertically through the centre of gravity. The movement around this axis is referred to as the <strong>Yaw</strong>.</li>
</ul>
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<h4>Centre of Gravity</h4>
<p>
The Centre of Gravity (CG) of a body can be considered as an imaginary point at which the entire weight of that body is assumed to be concentrated. In an airplane, the centre of gravity can be considered to be the point at which the airplane would balance (not rotate on its own across any of the axes) if it was suspend (theoretically in the case of a real airplane, but this could be demonstrated with an airplane model) at that point.
</p>
<p>
The location of the centre of gravity affects the stability of the airplane. If it is located too forward or behind lengthwise, the pitching motion will be impacted. If it is too left or right crosswise, the rolling motion will be impacted. An airplane is designed and constructed to have an optimal CG when empty. When it loaded with people and cargo, and filled with fuel, the weight and therefore the CG can be impacted. Therefore, when loading an airplane, the distribution of the weight across the airplane must be given careful consideration.
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<p><img id="a321-front-view" src="img/a321-specs-front_bw.png" class="w-100" /></p>
<p><button type="button" class="btn btn-dark" onclick="roll()">Roll</button></p>
<p>The Logitudinal Axis extends lengthwise through the fuselage from the nose to the tail. The motion around this axis is referred to as the Roll. The airplane rolls when it needs to turn left or right. which are used to take off or climb in flight, land or descend in flight and turn the airplane in flight and on the ground.</p>
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<p><img id="a321-side-view" src="img/a321-specs-side_bw.png" class="w-100" /></p>
<p><button type="button" class="btn btn-dark" onclick="pitch()">Pitch</button></p>
<p>The Lateral Axis extends from wingtip to wingtip. The motion around this axis is referred to as the Pitch. The airplane pitches up or down when it needs to climb or descend.</p>
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<p><img id="a321-top-view" src="img/a321-specs-top_bw.png" class="w-100" /></p>
<p><button type="button" class="btn btn-dark" onclick="yaw()">Yaw</button></p>
<p>The Vertical Axis passes vertically through the centre of gravity. The motion around this axis is referred to as the Yaw. The airplane yaws along with a roll when it needs to turn left or right. Roll and yaw work together to provide a way to rotate the airplane around a vertical axis. A roll produces a slipping turn, while a yaw alone produces a skidding turn, but both together produces a coordinated turn.</p>
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<div class="header">Control Systems</div>
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<p>
Airplane control systems comprise of the structural components (also referred to as the control surfaces) and the pilot controls (which may be mechanical in smaller airplane or electromechanical in larger airplane). The systems are further devided into primary and secondary systems.
</p>
<h5>Primary Control System</h5>
<p>
The primary control system is used by the pilot to control the movement of the airplane in flight. The primary controls are responsible for the three main movements of the airplane (pitch, roll and yaw). The three components are explained below.
</p>
<p><strong><em>We will explain the Secondary System in the next lesson on Forces in Flight.</em></strong></p>
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<p>
<strong>Ailerons</strong> control the roll about the longitudinal axis. The ailerons are attached to the trailing edge of each wing. The left and right ailerons move in the opposite direction from each other to make the airplane roll. When the left aileron is pushed down (and the right gets pushed up) there is an increased force created under the left wing which causes the airplane to roll to the right. The reverse aileron positions roll the airplane to the left. Ailerons are controlled by the pilot by moving the control wheel or joystick right and left.
</p>
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<p>
<strong>Elevators</strong> control the pitch about the lateral axis. The elevators are attached to the trailing edge of the horizontal stabiliser. Both elevators move in the same direction (up or down). When the elevators are pushed down there is an increased upward force under the horizontal stabiliser which causes the airplane to pitch down. In the reverse direction, the airplane pitches up. Elevators are controlled by the pilot by pushing the control wheel or the joystick forward (elevator up, nose down) or pulling it backward (elevator down, nose up).
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<p>
The <strong>Rudder</strong> controls the yaw about the vertical axis. The rudder is attached to the trailing edge of the vertical stabiliser. When the rudder is pushed to the left there is an increased force that pushes the vertical stabiliser to the right, causing the airplane to yaw left. When the rudder is pushed to the right the vertical stabiliser is pushed to the left causing the airplane to yaw right. The rudder is controlled by the pilot using the left and right foot pedals.
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</section>
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<div class="header">The Four Forces</div>
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<div class="col-sm-12 col-md-6 p-4">
<p>Four forces act on an airplane at any time whether on the ground or in flight and the relationship between the forces is important to understanding and controlling flight. The four forces are:</p>
<ul>
<li>
<strong>Thrust:</strong> is the force that pushes the airplane forward. This is an artificial force generated by the propeller or the jet engines. The propeller or engines push the air backwards and by Newton's Third Law, this generates an qual and opposite force that pushes the airplane forward.
</li>
<p></p>
<li>
<strong>Drag:</strong> is the force that opposes the forward motion of the airplane. This is a naturally occuring force, caused by a combination of friction and the push back from the air as the airplane tries to move forward through it.
</li>
<p></p>
<li>
<strong>Lift:</strong> is the force that pushes the airplane upwards, allowing it to take off from the ground into the air and to climb to higher altitudes while in flight. This is an artificial force generated by moving the airfoil shaped wings through the air at a high speed, using Bernoulli's principle.
</li>
<p></p>
<li>
<strong>Weight:</strong> is the force caused by the gravitational pull of the Earth on any body. This is a naturally occuring force, the same as the weight we experience for any object.
</li>
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<div class="header">Relationship Between Four Forces</div>
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<p>
By modifying the forces of thrust, drag, lift, and weight as required, pilots can achieve controlled flight for an heavier-than-air airplane. The forces work in opposing pairs, countering each other, weight and lift form one pair and drag and thrust form the other pair. Quite logically, one artificial generated force is used to counter one naturally occurring force. The interaction of the forces at various stages of flight are described below:
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<li>
<strong>Taxiing (for Take Off):</strong> When the airplane is stationary on the ground and needs to start moving forward on the runway, the force holding it back is the Drag, caused mainly the friction between the wheels and the runway surface. The engines need to generate an amount of Thrust greater than the Drag to start moving forward.
</li>
<p></p>
<li>
<strong>Take Off:</strong> When the airplane needs to take off, leaving the ground and starting its climb up in the air, the force holding it down is the Weight of the airplane. By increasing the speed and using the control surfaces, the airplane needs to generate an amount of Lift greater than the Weight to take off.
</li>
<p></p>
<li>
<strong>Climbing:</strong> Once the airplane has left the ground, the Drag changes from frictional forces on the ground to the push back from the air it is flying into and some friction in the air. The engines need to continue to generate Thrust greater than the drag to keep moving forward. Since the airplane needs to climb higher, it also needs to generate an amount of Lift greater than the Weight to continue climbing.
</li>
</ul>
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<ul>
<li>
<strong>Cruising:</strong> When the airplane reaches the desired altitude and doesn't need to climb any more, the Lift can be reduced to become equal to the Weight, so the airplane does not climb but does not descend due to the pull of the Weight either.
</li>
<p></p>
<li>
<strong>Landing:</strong> When the airplane needs to descend, finally coming in to land on the ground, the Lift must actually be reduced gradually so that the Weight of the airplane will slowly bring it towards the ground. The descent has to be very gradual so the Lift is still required but it just needs to be controlled so that it is just a little less than the Weight. When the airplane is descending, the gravitational force counters drag and assists forward movement, causing the airplane to pick up speed even without increasing the Thrust.
</li>
<p></p>
<li>
<strong>Taxiing (after Landing): </strong> Once the has landed, it is still moving quite fast and needs to slow down and come to a stop. The Thrust can now be reduced to zero and in fact, brakes need to be applied to increase the Drag (in the form of friction between the brakes and the wheels) to slow the plane down and bring it to a gradual stop. In advanced and large airplane engines, the Thrust can be reversed to help slow down the airplane faster.
</li>
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<p>
The secondary control system supports the primary control system to assist the pilot in controlling the airplane. Secondary flight control systems consist of wing flaps, spoilers, and trim systems.
</p>
<ul>
<li>
<strong>Flaps:</strong> are control surfaces attached to the trailing edge of the wing. They are used to increase lift, especially during take off and landing. When landing they also serve to add some drag to reduce speed. Flaps can be extended when needed and retracted into the wing’s structure when not needed. In larger airplanes flaps can be extended and retracted in steps, giving further control over the additional lift or induced drag.
</li>
<p></p>
<li>
<strong>Spoilers:</strong> are control surfaces attached to the top of wings to reduce lift and increase drag by "spoiling" the airflow over the wing. Spoilers are most often used to control rate of descent for accurate landings as they allows the airplane to descend without gaining speed. Spoilers are also deployed to help reduce ground roll after landing. By destroying lift, they transfer weight to the wheels, improving braking effectiveness.
</li>
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<ul>
<li>
<strong>Trim Systems:</strong> are control surfaces attached to the primary control surfaces. When the pilot needs to maintain a straight and level flight, ideally no changes to the control surfaces should be required. However, there often small forces that cause a slight change in the airplane's direction. Instead of the pilot contantly making changes to the primary control surfaces, trim systems allow for small changes to their settings that offset the effect of the small forces, thus relieving the pilot of the effort to constantly manage the primary control surfaces. While most commonly used to maintain straight and level flight, trimming can also be used in any phase of flight, for example to maintain a constant rate of climb or descent. And, while elevator trim is the most common, trimming can also be done on the rudder and ailerons.
</li>
</ul>
<img src="./img/trim_tabs.png" class="w-75" />
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<img src="img/angle_of_attack.png" class="w-100 d-block" alt="Angle of Attack" />
<p>
While the difference in air pressure above and below the wing does provide Lift, that is not the only contributor. The movement of the airplane (specifically the wing) at a high speed through the air generates a force that also contributes to the Lift. In fact, this is the component of Lift that is controllable by the pilot using a concept known as the <strong>Angle of Attack (AoA)</strong>. The AoA is defined as the angle between the chord line of an airfoil (the wings on an airplane) and the direction of the wind as it strikes the leading edge of the wing as can be seen from the image above.
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<p>
The force of the wind hitting the wing at an angle produces a force that pushes the wing in a direction that is perpendicular to the angled wing. Using vector arithmetic, this force can be broken up into two components: a vertical component which is the Lift and a horizontal component which is the Drag. Using a combination of airspeed and the AoA, pilots can control the amount of Lift required depending on the stage of the flight.
</p>
<p>
Since flying an airplane at a certain airspeed with the wing at an angle of attack generates both Lift and Drag, increasing the AoA will not keep on increasing the Lift without limit. In fact, as the AoA is increased it not only increases the Drag component, it also spoils the airflow over the wings which further reduces the Lift. There is therefore, an optimal combination of airspeed and the AoA that generates the maximum possible Lift. Increasing the AoA any further will start to actually reduce the Lift and in fact there is a point at which increasing the AoA will reduce the Lift so much that it is not sufficient to keep the airplane in the air anymore. Similarly, reducing the airspeed too much will also result in insufficient Lift.
</p>
<p>
This condition in flight where the Lift is not sufficient to keep the airplane in the air is referred to as a Stall. The airspeed below which this occurs is referred to as the Stall Speed. The AoA above which a stall occurs is referred to as the Critical or Stall Angle of Attack. This is a dangerous condition and corrective action must be taken immediately by increasing the airspeed or reducing the AoA as required.
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</section>
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<p>Navigation is the process of planning and executing and possibly recording, the movement of a person or a vehicle from one place to another. The term vehicle includes surface (land or sea) transport such as a cars, trucks, trains and ships, as well as non-surface transport such as airplane. Successful navigation involves taking a vehicle from one place to another in a reasonable time without breaking any laws related to transport or endangering the safety of those on board or in the path of the vehicle.</p>
<p>Airplane and ship navigation is a lot more complex than land transport navigation primarily because there are many more visual aids to navigation on land than on sea or in the air. Air navigation is further significantly more complex for multiple reasons. Airplanes travel at relatively high speeds, leaving less time to calculate or change direction en route. Airplanes cannot stop in mid-air to ascertain their position at leisure. A surface vehicle can get lost, run out of fuel, and await rescue without significant impact, except time delays. Other than specialised military airplane, commercial or private airplane cannot run out of fuel in the air as they don't have mid-air refuelling options.</p>
<p>There are two main navigation modes:</p>
<ul>
<li>Visual Flight Rules (VFR)</li>
<li>Instrument Fight Rules (IFR)</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="col-sm-12 col-md-6 p-3">
<h5>Visual Flight Rules (VFR)</h5>
<p>In this form of navigation, the pilot relies on visual points of locational reference on the surface below, usually in conjunction with an aeronautical chart. This is a chart that depicts controlled airspace, radio navigation aids and airfields, as well as hazards to flying such as mountain and main-made tall structures such as radio towers or skyscrapers. It also includes sufficient ground detail including towns, roads, wooded areas, and water bodies, all of which can be used as reference points to in visual navigation. The information is regularly updated in what are known as notices to airmen, or NOTAMs. This form of navigation in an airplane is usually practiced over or close to land and under visual meteorological conditions (VMC) for flight, which are conditions in which pilots have sufficient visibility to observe the terrain they are flying over and other airplane around them.</p>
<h5>Instrument Flight Rules (IFR)</h5>
<p>In this form of navigation, the pilot will navigate exclusively using instruments, radio navigation aids and satellite based positioning systems, or as directed by air traffic control. This form of navigation is the only option in instrument meteorological conditions (IMC), which is the opposite of VMC in that pilots do not have sufficient visibility to observe the terrain or other airplane due to weather conditions or at night. IFR can be used even when visibility is good if the pilot so desires. IFR needs radio and satellite guidance systems en-route and at airports. So pilots cannot fly under IMC in areas that do not have IFR support.</p>
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<h5>The Reference Line (Datum)</h5>
<p>There are four main directional references used in air navigation, depending on the datum used.</p>
<img id="tn-mn-cn" src="img/tn_mn_cn.png" class="w-100" />
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<div class="col-sm-12 col-md-6 p-4">
<ul>
<li>
<strong>Degrees True (ºT): Relative to True North</strong>
<br/>
True North (also referred to as Geographic North) is the direction along the Earth's surface towards the geographic North Pole. Directions measured with the line to the North Pole as the reference are referred to as True North directions. The North Pole is a fixed reference point and does not change under any conditions.
</li>
<li>
<strong>Degrees Magnetic (ºM): Relative to Magnetic North</strong>
<br/>
A magnetic compass relies on the Earth's magnetic field which can be differently aligned at different locations on the Earth. Thus, the North indicated by a magnetic compass is referred to as the Magnetic North and may not be exactly aligned with True North. The difference in angle between the True North and Magnetic North reference lines is known as the Variation.
</li>
<li>
<strong>Degrees Compass (ºC): Relative to Compass North</strong>
<br/>
Any magnetic or ferrous material or electrical equipment on or near an airplane compass will affect the local magnetic field and may deflect the compass needle away from the Magnetic North. The North shown by a compass at any point in time is referred to as the Compass North, which may be different from the Magnetic North. The difference in angle between the Magnetic North and Compass North reference lines is known as the Deviation.
</li>
<li>
<strong>Degrees Relative (ºR): Relative to an arbitrary reference line</strong>
<br/>
This directional reference is used to determine the direction of travel with reference to a specific points, usually a radio station that is transmitting a signal, with the reference line being the line from the airplane to the station.
</li>
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<img id="course-heading-track" src="img/course_heading_track.png" class="w-100" />
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The angle between the Heading and the Track is referred to as the Drift Angle. If the Heading is set correctly, the Wind Correction Angle will be equal to the Drift Angle and the Track will be aligned with the Course, which is the perfect flight condition.<br/>
The angle between the Heading and the Course is referred to as the Wind Correction Angle (WCA). In a zero-wind condition, the Heading will be the same as the Course (WCA will be 0 degrees).
</div>
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<div class="col-sm-12 col-md-6 p-4">
<h5>Direction of Airplane Travel</h5>
<ul>
<li>
<strong>Course</strong>
<br/>
The Course of an airplane is the path it intends to take to get from an origin to a destination point. For short flights it may be a straight line between the origin and destination airports. For long flights, the course may not be a straight line, rather it will be a series of connected straight lines between continuous sets of two points along the way. The goal of the pilot is to keep the airplane on the Course.
</li>
<li>
<strong>Heading</strong>
<br/>
The Heading of an airplane is the direction its nose is pointed towards. Airplanes in flight are subjected to wind forces that cause a change to the flight direction from the intended direction. To stay on its Course, an airplane must actually fly in a Heading that takes into factor the wind direction such that the wind forces correct the flight direction such that it actually stays on Course.
</li>
<li>
<strong>Track</strong>
<br/>
The Track is the actual path made over the ground in flight. If the Heading is set correctly, the Track will be the same as the Course. If the Heading is not corrected for the wind and is set to be aligned with the Course the wind will push the airplane in a different direction, a Track which will not be aligned with the Course. This will take the airplane away from its intended destination.
</li>
<li>
<strong>Bearing</strong>
<br/>
This is used to determine the relative location of a reference point (such as an airport or a radio station) so that the direction of travel can be established. This will be explained in the lesson on Navigation.
</li>
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<div class="header">Azimuth</div>
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<p>The azimuth is the angle formed between a reference direction (in this example north) and a line from the observer to a point of interest projected on the same plane as the reference direction orthogonal to the zenith.</p>
It is an angular measurement in a spherical coordinate system. The vector from an observer (origin) to a point of interest is projected perpendicularly onto a reference plane; the angle between the projected vector and a reference vector on the reference plane is called the azimuth.</p>
<p>When used as a celestial coordinate, the azimuth is the horizontal direction of a star or other astronomical object in the sky. The star is the point of interest, the reference plane is the local area (e.g. a circular area 5 km in radius at sea level) around an observer on Earth's surface, and the reference vector points to true north. The azimuth is the angle between the north vector and the star's vector on the horizontal plane.</p>
<p>Azimuth is usually measured in degrees (°). Azimuth guidance operations are where the instrument uses a needle pointer to show relative bearings to, or from, a station or waypoint. Typical automatic direction finder (ADF) indicators provide a form of azimuth guidance.</p>
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<p>
Radio waves are a form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths longer than infrared light. Naturally occurring radio waves are emitted by lightning and astronomical objects and adio waves can be artificially generated by accelerating charged particles. Electronic devices referred to as transmitters are used to generate radio waves which are received and processed by receivers.Antennas are attachements to these devices that amplify radio signals so they can travel over longer distances. Radio waves are widely used for communication and navigation systems in aviation, as well as for many other non-aviation applications.
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<p>
Radio waves have different propagation characteristics in the Earth's atmosphere depending on their wavelength.Long waves can diffract around obstacles like mountains and follow the contour of the earth (ground waves), shorter waves can reflect off the ionosphere and return to earth beyond the horizon (skywaves), while much shorter wavelengths bend or diffract very little and travel on a line of sight, so their propagation distances are limited to the visual horizon.
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<p>
A radio wave is represented as a sine wave (a mathematical curve that describes a smooth periodic oscillation) and as such has the three basic properties of a wave:
<ul>
<li>Amplitude: The height of the wave or the magnitude of oscillation.</li>
<li>Frequency: The number of times the wave oscillates in a second.</li>
<li>Phase: At what point on the sine curve is the wave at any point in time.</li>
</ul>
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<p>
When using radio waves to communicate or send data, they can be assumed to comprise two waves: a carrier wave and a signal or a data wave. The carrier wave is a pure wave of a constant amplitude and frequency and it does not carry any information. To include signal or data information, another wave needs to be superimposed on top of the carrier wave. This process of imposing an input signal onto a carrier wave is called modulation.
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<p>
There are two forms of modulation, based on modifying two of the properties of a wave. In the first form, the magnitude of the oscillation can be varied with time based on the value of the data signal. This is referred to as Amplitude Modulation (AM). In the second form, the frequency of the oscillation can be varied with time, this is referred to as Frequency Modulation (FM).
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<p>
Signals that are transmitted and received via aviation radio can be for communication (COM) or navigation (NAV). While ATC communication is all voice, VHF Omnirange (VOR) navigation stations and aircraft navigation beacons often transmit voice communications in addition to their navigation functions. The specifications of a navigation aid or a air traffic control tower will indicate all information about the signal that the pilot needs to know to tune in. For example, Instrument Landing Systems (ILS) transmitters use amplitude modulation (AM). The carrier frequency for the localizer is in the range of 108.00 MHz to 111.975 MHz, one modulated with a 90Hz signals and the second with a 150Hz signal.
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<h5>Non-Directional Beacon (NDB)</h5>
<p>Direction finding (DF), or radio direction finding (RDF), is the measurement of the direction from which a received signal is transmitted. By combining the direction information from two or more suitably spaced receivers, the source of a transmission can be located via a procedure known as triangulation. RDF systems can be used with any radio source, although very long wavelengths (low frequencies) require very large antennas, and are generally used only on ground-based systems.</p>
<p>To overcome the limitations of RDF, a combination of non-directional beacons (NDB) and automatic direcion finders (ADF) came into use. NDB signals follow the curvature of the Earth, so they can be received at much greater distances at lower altitudes. However, NDB signals are also affected more by atmospheric conditions, mountainous terrain, coastal refraction and electrical storms, particularly at long range.</p>
<p>There are four types of non-directional beacons in the aeronautical navigation service:</p>
<ul>
<li>En-route NDBs (used to mark airways)</li>
<li>Approach NDBs</li>
<li>Localizer beacons (used in conjunction with an Instrument Landing System)</li>
<li>Locator beacons (used in conjunction with an Instrument Landing System)</li>
</ul>
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<h5>Automatic Direction Finder (ADF)</h5>
<p>NDB navigation consists of two parts — the automatic direction finder (ADF) equipment on the airplane that detects an NDB's signal, and the NDB transmitter. </p>
<p>The ADF needle points directly at low-frequency non-directional beacons (NDB) but it does not indicate a heading to the station. To get the magnetic bearing to the station, the ADFs fixed compass card requires the pilot to take the relative bearing to or from the station (the angle between the airplane’s nose or tail and the NDB), and then add the relative bearing to the current magnetic heading to get the magnetic bearing to the station. ADF equipment determines the direction or bearing to the NDB station relative to the airplane by using a combination of directional and non-directional antennae to sense the direction in which the combined signal is strongest. The pilot may use this bearing to draw a line on the map to show the bearing from the beacon. By using a second beacon, two lines may be drawn to locate the airplane at the intersection of the lines. This is called a cross-cut.</p>
<p>This bearing may be displayed on a radio magnetic indicator (RMI). In order to track toward an NDB (with no wind), the airplane is flown so that the needle points to the 0 degree position. The airplane will then fly directly to the NDB. Similarly, the airplane will track directly away from the NDB if the needle is maintained on the 180 degree mark. With a crosswind, the needle must be maintained to the left or right of the 0 or 180 position by an amount corresponding to the drift due to the crosswind.</p>
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<h5>VOR</h5>
<p>Very high frequency omni-directional range (VOR) is a type of short-range radio navigation system for airplanes, enabling them to determine their position and stay on course by receiving radio signals transmitted by a network of fixed ground radio beacons. A VOR system comprises of a VOR receiver fitted in the airplane and the VOR stations on the ground. There are two types of VOR navigational stations for civilian use: VOR and VOR-DME (VOR plus distance measuring equipment). Each VOR station can further be classified according to its range, terminal, low altitude, or high altitude. VORs can only be received line-of-sight, so if there is an obstruction between the airplane and the VOR, the receiver not receive a reliable signal even though it is within the station's range.</p>
<p>The radials transmitted by a VOR station are aligned to the magnetic north (not the true north). Before using VOR for navigation it must be tuned and identified. Each VOR station has its own frequency and Morse code identifier. The correct radio frequency must be dialled into the receiver to receive the signals. The Morse code is sent as an audio signal that can be heard over the airplane's audio system, which needs to configured to listen. Each VOR has a unique three digit Morse code identifier so by listening to the code the pilot can confirm the receiver is tuned in to the intended VOR.</p>
<img src="img/VOR_DME_BUB.jpeg" class="w-75 align-self-center" />
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<h5>VOR Radials</h5>
<p>The radio signals transmitted by a VOR station are referred to as radials since they are broadcast in all directions in a circle around the station, 360 radials, one at each degree around the circle. The receiver determines the radial it is on and that indicates the position of the airplane relative to the VOR station. For example, if the receiver receives a 360-degree radial signal, then the airplane is exactly north of the station, if it receives a 90-degree radial signal it is exactly east of the station and so on.</p>
<img src="img/VOR_principle.gif" class="w-50 align-self-center"/>
<div class="alert alert-info align-self-center" role="alert">
A radio beam sweeps around (actually it's done 30 times per second). When the beam is at the local magnetic north direction, the station transmits a second, omni-directional signal. Theoretically the time between this signal and receiving the beam gives the angle from the VOR station, this is 105° now.
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<p class="d-none">Since the VOR station transmits the signals as radials (imagine the spokes of a bicycle wheel) the distance between the radials increases the further the airplane is from the station (and decreases as the airplane gets closer to the station). The sensitivity of the VOR instrument when displaying the radial the airplane is on is accordingly higher or lower, since far away from the VOR station the airplane must travel a longer distance to move from one radial to another, whereas closer to the VOR station the airplane may change radials within a very short distance.</p>
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<h5>Using VOR</h5>
<p>The VOR indicator has two important positions: the primary course index on top of the VOR indicator and the reciprocal course index at the bottom of the VOR indicator. The VOR instrument has an OBS (Omni Bearing Selector) knob that the pilot uses to select VOR radials by placing them above the primary course index or below the reciprocal course index.</p>
<p>The bearing selector must be used in conjunction with the To/From flag on the face of the instrument, which indicates whether the airplane is heading towards the VOR station or away from it. The To/From flag may show off if the course index is way off from the VOR station or directly above it, or if the signal is lost. The VOR radial is no indication of the airplane's heading. The airplane could be on the 90° radial (to the east of the VOR station) but heading in any direction. </p>
<p>A needle that shifts Left or Right (either as a straight line shifting or as a pendulum, depending on the type of instrument) is called the Course Deviation Indicator (CDI). The position of the CDI needle will indicate whether or not the airplane is on the selected radial. If exactly along the radial the CDI needle will be centered. The direction of deflection tells the pilot where he is relative to the radial, while the dots on the instrument's face tell the pilot how many degrees he is off his course. Each dot represents a 2-degree deflection from the desired course. There are 10 degrees of deflection on either side of the center disk, creating 20 degrees total indicating capability.</p>
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<img src="img/vor_instrument_to_250x250px_transparentbg.png" class="w-50 pe-2 float-start" />
<p>To fly towards the VOR station, the pilot must first get the bearing to the VOR station and then set the course (and heading to correct for wind) of the airplane accordingly. To get a bearing to the VOR station, the pilot turns the OBS knob until the CDI needle is centered and the To flag is shown. The number on top of the dial, the primary course index, is the magnetic bearing from the airplane to the VOR station. For example, if the reading shows the 90° radial, the airplane is directly east of the station. With the same radial reading and the From flag, the airplane is now on the west of the station.</p>
<p>Assuming the bearing is determined to be 90°, with the To/From flag showing To, the course of the airplane (for simplicity we will assume no wind correction and therefore the Heading is the same as the Course) should be set to 270°. Depending on its original heading, the airplane will have to turn as required to get to the new heading.</p>
<p>If the needle drifts off-center the airplane would be turned towards the needle until it is centered again. When the airplane is flying over the VOR station the CDI needle may move to the extreme right or left. This is expected behaviour and no changes to the heading are required. After the airplane passes over the VOR station the To/From indicator will indicate "From" and the CDI needle will centre itself again. The airplane is now proceeding outbound on the 270° radial.</p>
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<h5>Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)</h5>
<p>DME is a radio navigation technology, implemented as a combination of ground and airplane equipment, which gives a continuous slant range distance from a DME station by measuring the time taken for a signal transmitted by the airplane to the station to receive a response. A line-of-visibility between the airplane and ground station is required. The DME equipment on the airplane initiates an exchange by transmitting a signal, on an assigned channel and a specified frequency, to the DME ground station. After a known delay, the DME ground station replies by transmitting a signal on another specified frequency. Based on the time taken for the response, the distance in nautical miles can be calculated.</p>
<p>DME ground stations may be standalone but are usually colocated with a VOR transmitter in a single ground station. When this occurs, the frequencies of the VOR and DME equipment are paired. Such a configuration enables an airplane to determine its bearing and slant range (distance) from the station. The airplane equipment needs to tune in only to the VOR frequency and can listen to the DME signals as well.</p>
<img src="img/DME_Slant_and_Plan_range.jpg" class="w-100" />
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<h5>Global Positioning System (GPS)</h5>
<p>A satellite navigation or satnav system is a system that uses satellites to provide geo-spatial positioning. It allows small electronic receivers to determine their location (longitude, latitude, and altitude/elevation) to high precision (within a few centimeters to metres) using time signals transmitted along a line of sight by radio from satellites. The system can be used for providing position, navigation or for tracking the position of something fitted with a receiver (satellite tracking). The signals also allow the electronic receiver to calculate the current local time to high precision, which allows time synchronisation. These uses are collectively known as Positioning, Navigation and Timing (PNT). Satnav systems operate independently of any telephonic or internet reception, though these technologies can enhance the usefulness of the positioning information generated.</p>
<p>A satellite navigation system with global coverage may be termed a global navigation satellite system (GNSS). While there are a handful of systems, the most popular now is the Global Positioning System (GPS) supported by the United States and hence such a system is quite often referred to as a GPS system. The use of GNSS in aircraft is becoming increasingly common as it provides very precise aircraft position, altitude, heading and ground speed information.</p>
<div class="alert alert-success align-self-center" role="alert">
In modern airplanes, especially those with electronic displays, GPS has replaced VOR as the primary navigation system due to its higher accuracy, reliability and ease-of-use. It is still useful to understand how to use VOR as a back to GPS and if flying small airplanes that may not have a GPS system. We will cover GPS navigation in detail in Avionics.
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<h5>Transponders</h5>
<p>Airplanes are fitted with devices known as Transponders.In telecommunication, a transponder is a device that, upon receiving a signal, emits a different signal in response. The term is a portmanteau of transmitter and responder. It is variously abbreviated as XPDR, XPNDR, TPDR or TP.</p>
<p>In radio frequency identification, a flight transponder is an automated transceiver in an aircraft that emits a coded identifying signal in response to an interrogating received signal. Depending on the type of interrogation, the transponder sends back a transponder code (or "squawk code", Mode A) or altitude information (Mode C) to help air traffic controllers to identify the aircraft and to maintain separation between planes. Another mode called Mode S (Mode Select) is designed to help avoiding over-interrogation of the transponder (having many radars in busy areas) and to allow automatic collision avoidance.</p>
<p>Primary radar works best with large all-metal aircraft, but not so well on small, composite aircraft. Its range is also limited by terrain and rain or snow and also detects unwanted objects such as automobiles, hills and trees. Furthermore, it cannot always estimate the altitude of an aircraft. Secondary radar overcomes these limitations but it depends on a transponder in the aircraft to respond to interrogations from the ground station to make the plane more visible.</p>
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<h5>Squawk Codes</h5>
<p>Air traffic control units use the term "squawk" when they are assigning an airplane a transponder code. Squawk thus can be said to mean "select transponder code" or "squawking xxxx" to mean "I have selected transponder code xxxx". The primary goal of a squawk code is to provide effective communication between the ATC and the aircraft. Prior to departure, aircraft will be given a squawk code, which will be used by ATC to direct the aircraft during its flight. This code will show up on ATC screens and helps provide basic information such as flight plan, speed, altitude, and more.</p>
<p>Pilots are required to enter squawk codes into their aircraft transponder to communicate with flight controllers. Only if the correct squawk code is entered into the transponder will it appear on ATC screens with the correct information. The transponder is constantly communicating with the ground and providing “pings” with information.</p>
<p>Squawk codes are four digits, with each being a number between zero and seven. This gives thousands of possible combinations for air traffic control to give to aircraft. There are a few reserved squawk codes, especially for emergencies.</p>
<p>The first of three main emergency codes is Squawk 7500 which is used to indicate that the aircraft has been hijacked and requires emergency support. The second emergency code is Squawk 7600 which is used to communicate to air traffic control that the plane has lost communications with the tower and needs alternate guidance. The third emergency code is Squawk 7700 which is used communicate all other emergencies onboard a flight.
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</section>
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There is a really cool VOR Simulator you can play with to understand VOR navigation. It only works on larger screens though! Use your desktop,laptop or a larger tablet!
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<img id="vor-instrument-to" src="img/vor_instrument_to_250x250px_transparentbg.png" class="position-absolute" style="display:block"/>
<img id="vor-instrument-from" src="img/vor_instrument_from_250x250px_transparentbg.png" class="position-absolute" style="display:none;" />
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<img id="vor-markings" src="img/vor_markings_250x250px.png" class="position-absolute" />
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<div class="header mb-3">VOR Simulator</div>
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<label for="move-plane" class="form-label fw-bold">Re-position Airplane:</label>
<button type="button" class="btn btn-outline-secondary btn-sm" onclick="moveAirplane(-4,0)">
<i class="bi bi-arrow-left-square-fill"></i>
</button>
<button type="button" class="btn btn-outline-secondary btn-sm" onclick="moveAirplane(0,-15)">
<i class="bi bi-arrow-clockwise"></i>
</button>
<button type="button" class="btn btn-outline-secondary btn-sm" onclick="moveAirplane(4,0)">
<i class="bi bi-arrow-right-square-fill"></i>
</button>
<div class="d-inline-block ms-3">
Heading: <span id="start-heading">0</span>° MN
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<hr>
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<label for="obs-input" class="form-label fw-bold">Radial:</label>
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<input id="obs-input" type="text" value="" class="form-control">
<button class="btn btn-outline-secondary" type="button" id="btn-vor-radial" onclick="vor_markings_rotate(null)">OBS</button>
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<label for="heading-input" class="form-label fw-bold">New Heading:</label>
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<input id="heading-input" type="text" value="" class="form-control" placeholder="">
<button class="btn btn-outline-secondary" type="button" id="btn-vor-radial" onclick="setHeading()">Heading</button>
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<label for="heading-input" class="form-label fw-bold">Wind:</label>
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<input id="heading-input" type="text" value="" class="form-control" placeholder="">
<button class="btn btn-outline-secondary" type="button" id="btn-wind" onclick="wind_direction()">Wind</button>
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<button class="btn btn-primary" type="button" onclick="startFlight()">Start Flight</button>
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<div class="col-sm-12 col-md-6 h-100 d-block position-relative">
<img id="compass-north" src="img/round-compass.png" class="position-absolute" style="z-index: 10; width: 64px" />
<img id="vor-radial" src="img/vor_radial_transparentbg.png" class="position-absolute" />
<img id="airplane" src="img/prop_airplane_icon_64x64.png" class="position-absolute" />
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Edge
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<div class="header">Intercepting VOR Radials</div>
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<img src="img/intercepting_vor_radials.jpg" class="image-fluid w-75" alt="Intercepting VOR Radials"/>
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<ol>
<li>The airplane is on radial 152, flying away FROM the VOR station.</li>
<li>The airplane is on radial 152, flying away FROM the VOR station, but has veered a bit to the right. The CDI needle has moved to the left, indicating the direction the airplane needs to move to get back on course.</li>
<li>The airplane is on radial 152, flying away FROM the VOR station, but has veered a bit to the left. The CDI needle has moved to the right, indicating the direction the airplane needs to move to get back on course.</li>
<li>The airplane is on radial 93, flying TO the VOR station. Note its heading is not necessarily aligned with the radial and heading to the VOR.</li>
</ol>
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<li>The airplane is far away from the radial 252 which is set as the primary course index using the OBS knob.</li>
<li>The airplane is on radial 72, flying TO the VOR station.</li>
<li>The airplane is on radial 72, flying TO the VOR station, but has veered a bit to the right. The CDI needle has moved to the left, indicating the direction the airplane needs to move to get back on course. </li>
<li>The airplane is on radial 72, flying TO the VOR station, but has veered a bit to the left. The CDI needle has moved to the right, indicating the direction the airplane needs to move to get back on course.</li>
</ol>
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